
Book^ ^— 



^bS" 



BULLETIN 358 



Published monthly by the 

New York State Education Department 



NOVEMBER 1905 



Secondary Education 

Bulletin 27 
SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 1905 



PAGE 

Historical sketch 3 

Introductory notes 10 

English 16 

First year English 19 

Second year English 20 

Third year English 22 

Fourth year English 23 

English grammar 27 

History of the English language 

and literature 29 

Latin and Greek 31 

Latin 32 

Greek 35 

Modern foreign languages 38 

German 38 

French 42 

Spanish 45 

Mathematics 48 

Advanced arithmetic 48 

Elementary algebra 49 

Intermediate algebra 52 

Plane geometry 54 

Solid geometry 54 

Trigonometry 54 

Advanced algebra 55 

Physical science. . , 58 

Physics 58 

Chemistry 82 

Biologic science 105 

Biology 105 

Elementary botany 109 

Elementary zoology 113 



PAGE 

Physiology and hygiene 119 

Advanced botany 123 

Advanced zoology 128 

Physical geography and agricul- 
ture 132 

Physical geography 132 

Agriculture 151 

History 158 

Ancient history 162 

European history 182 

English history 210 

American history. 226 

Social science 248 

Civil government 248 

Economics 268 

Business subjects 272 

Elementary bookkeeping 273 

Advanced bookkeeping 275 

Business practice and technics. . 277 

Business arithmetic 279 

Commercial law 279 

History of commerce 281 

Commercial geography 286 

Business correspondence 291 

Business writing 292 

Stenography 292 

Typewriting 293 

Drawing and advanced drawing. 29S 

Drawing 297 

Advanced drawing 313 

Index 319 



ALBANY ] 

NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 
I90S 

H 3 6sm-Aps-5ooo TV,' ' ^ Erice 25 cents 



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STATE OF NEW YORK ' ft 

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Regents of the University 
With years when terms expire 

1913 Whitelaw Reid M.A. LL.D. Chancellor . . . New York 

1906 St Clair McKelway M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L. 

Vice Chancellor Brooklyn 

1908 Daniel Beach Ph.D. LL.D Watkins 

1914 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Palmyra 

1912 T. Guilford Smith M.A. C.E. LL.D Buffalo 

1907 William Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. . . Syracuse 

1910 Charles A. Gardiner Ph.D. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L. New York 

191 5 Charles S. Francis B.S Troy 

191 1 Edward Lauterbach M.A. LL.D New York 

1909 Eugene A. Philbin LL.B. LL.D New York 

1916 Lucian L. Shbdden LL.B Plattsburg 

Commissioner of Education 

Andrew S. Drapbr LL.D. 

Assistant Commissioners 

Howard J. Rogers M.A. LL.D. First Assistant Commissioner 
Edward J. Goodwin Lit.D. L.H.D. Second Assistant Commissioner 
Augustus S. Downing M.A. Third Assistant Commissioner 

Secretary to the Commissioner 

Harlan H. Horner B.A. 

Director of Libraries and Home Education 

Melvil Dewey LL.D. 

Director of Science and State Museum 

John M. Clarke Ph.D. LL.D. 

Chiefs of Divisions 

Accounts, William Mason 

Attendance, James D. Sullivan 

Examinations, Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. 

Inspections, Frank H. Wood M.A. 

Law, Thomas E. Finegan M.A. 

Records, Charles E. Fitch L.H.D. 

Statistics,, Hiram £. .Case, 

VisuL IftstrucHw, I)eLa'1,cc.e;y :M. Ellis 

D£C19Q5. t t 



ft 

New York State Education Department 



Secondary Education 

Bulletin 27 

SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 1905 

HISTORICAL SKETCH 

In tracing the history of the Academic Syllabus we find its begin- 
nings in the very early records of the Board of Regents. The Board 
was organized under a statute enacted May 1, 1784. At a meeting 
of the Regents held at the Exchange in the city of New York, Feb. 
28, 1786, it was ordered that a committee be appointed to consider 
"ways and means of promoting literature throughout the State." 
At the second meeting of the reorganized Board, Nov. 17, 1787, 
Erasmus Hall and Clinton Academy were incorporated and com- 
mittees were designated to visit these academies and Columbia 
College, the three institutions of the University at that date. 

At a regular meeting held in the Senate chamber at Poughkeepsie 
Feb. 26, 1788, a report to the Legislature was adopted, from which 
it appears that Erasmus Hall had 26 students, and Clinton Academy, 
53 ; that the principal of Erasmus Hall in conjunction with the trus- 
tees had signified a determination that the classical and English 
departments should be regularly attended to by proper tutors ; that 
the first of these departments should comprise the Latin and Greek 
languages with geography and the outlines of ancient and modern 
history; that the second should comprehend the English language, 
reading, writing, arithmetic and bookkeeping; that the French 
language should also be taught to those that request it, and elocution 
be attended to in both departments; that the students of Clinton 
Academy were instructed according to their several classes; that 
the first consisted of 12 scholars in the Latin and Greek languages, 
logic, natural philosophy, mathematics and geography; that the 
second consisted of 17 in English grammar, writing, arithmetic 
and accountantship, and such of them as chose it were taught the 
French language; that the common school or class were taught 
reading, writing and arithmetic ; that in each of the classes speak- 
ing and reading in public formed a part of the education "received ; 



4 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

and that the tutors appeared attentive to the instruction and 
morals of their pupils. In the written record of this interesting 
meeting which was held before the election of the first president of 
the United States we find the substantial outlines of (i) a curriculum 
for the elementary school, (2) a course of study for students prepar- 
ing for college and (3) a program of studies adapted to students 
whose education ends in the secondary school. The same report 
shows that Columbia College had 40 students instructed in the Latin 
and Greek languages, geography, natural and moral philosophy and 
the mathematics. 

At the next meeting of the Regents held in Albany Dec. 25, 1788, 
after "sundry papers respecting the state of literature in Columbia 
College and the academies incorporated by the University were laid 
before the Board," it was ordered that a committee suggest to the 
Legislature the "propriety of investing the University with some 
of the lands belonging to the public. " The committee appealed to 
the Legislature in the following words : 

In our own State it was evidently intended that the University 
should possess and exercise a general superintendence over all 
literary establishments which might be formed among us and that 
it should direct the system in such a manner as would conduce to 
the harmony and interests of the whole. In the course of our duty 
we have seen with regret that several of the literary establishments 
in this State are destitute of funds for their support and involved 
in debt or dependent on private bounty. 

. . . Our attention would naturally extend not only to sub- 
sisting literary corporations but to the erection of academies in every 
part of the State; and it is obvious that the most important pur- 
poses might be attained by affording timely assistance to infant 
seminaries which must otherwise languish for a time and perhaps 
finally perish ... In this situation we trust that it will not be 
deemed improper to suggest that the lands belonging to the State at 
Crown Point, Ticonderoga and Fort George . . . would with 
careful management afford an income to the University. 

In accord with this appeal the Legislature Mar. 31, 1790, passed 
an act by which the University was invested with the authority to 
take possession of the lands designated in their petition together 
with "a certain island lying within the general bounds of the city 
and county of New York commonly called and known by the name 
of Governors Island . . . and from time to time to dispose of 
and apply the same for the better advancement of science and litera- 
ture ... in such manner and proportion as will best answer 
the ends of their institution. " By this same act £1000 were appro- 
priated from the state treasury to be applied by the Regents with- 
'<ou-$ <§blaN" for ; the* -encouragement and promotion of science and 
'literature^' ' „ c 1 ' r < '< « 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 

By this act of 1790 New York State established the policy not 
only of setting aside funds for a permanent income but also of 
directly appropriating from the state treasury moneys to be expended 
for secondary and higher education. Feb. 7, 1793, the principles 
governing the apportionment of the literature fund were definitely 
established and provided that pecuniary aid should be extended to 
support additional teachers, to purchase indispensable apparatus 
and books, and to pay the tuition of capable, indigent students. 
These rules were subsequently amended Ap. 17, 18 17, and again 
Mar. 18, 1828, when the Regents ordered that the income of the 
literature fund should be distributed to each of the academies in 
proportion to its number of students in the classics and in the 
higher branches of English. To establish a more elevated course 
of instruction in the academies, the Regents at that date (1828) 
"defining with greater certainty the various branches of study" 
which should entitle the institution to a distributive share of the 
income of the literature fund, ordered (1) that no one should be con- 
sidered a classical student until he had studied one half of Corderius, 
one half of Historia Sacra, one third of Viri Romae, two books of 
Caesar's Commentaries and the first book of Virgil's Aeneid, (2) that 
no one should be considered a student in the higher branches of 
English until, on examination duly made, he had been found 
qualified in reading, writing, elementary arithmetic, English gram- 
mar and geography, (3) and that both classical and higher English 
students must have been in attendance at least four months and 
must have been trained in declamation and English composition. 
This ordinance of 1828 fixes the bounds of elementary instruction, 
establishes examinations for admission to the grade of academic 
students and contains the first suggestions of a syllabus for element- 
ary and secondary schools. 

But 50 years elapsed before the examinations called for in the 
ordinance of 1828 were in full operation. In 1864 the Regents 
ordered (1) that the students in every academy should be divided 
into two classes to be denominated preparatory and academic ; (2) 
that preparatory pupils should be those who pursue studies pre- 
liminary to the higher branches of education, and academic students 
those who having passed the examinations in preliminary subjects 
should pursue higher branches of English education or the classics or 
both; (3) that examinations should be conducted in the presence and 
under the direction of a committee of at least three persons; (4) 
that to each student sustaining such examination a certificate 
should be given that should entitle him without further examina- 



6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

tion to admission into any academy subject to the visitation of the 
Regents. From 1870 all answer papers of students claimed by 
principals were reexamined at the Regents office, and in June 1878 
examinations in 20 academic subjects were established on the same 
general plan. 

Tendencies apparent in the ordinance quoted above crystallized 
in chapter 4 2 5 of the laws of 1 8 7 7 , by which the Regents were directed 
to establish academic examinations and to furnish a suitable 
standard of graduation and of admission to college. A law enacted 
in 1880 amended the method of distributing the literature fund 
among the academies, by authorizing the Regents to distribute not 
more than one fourth of this fund in proportion to the number of 
students that passed the examinations provided for in the law of 
1877. The Regents accordingly ordered that the sum of $10 should 
be allotted to each academy for each student who during the pre- 
ceding year completed the examinations required for a diploma, and 
$5 for the completion of the examinations for the intermediate 
certificate which covered subjects regarded as indispensable and 
made obligatory for a diploma. This granting of public money for 
results obtained in examinations continued in force until the year 
1900 when it was abandoned, and the Regents recurred to the 
original method of apportionment for attendance. 

Because the statutes required the Regents to inaugurate a system 
of preliminary and academic examinations, and directed them to 
establish a standard of graduation, it became necessary for them to 
prepare and issue a formal syllabus that should designate and de- 
limit the subjects of study in which students should be examined 
and on which credentials should be issued. Accordingly Dr David 
Murray, Secretary of the Board of Regents, issued in December 
1880, a "summary of requirements" in the prefatory note to which 
he said: 

This system of Regents examinations, which has now become so 
extended, was devised originally to provide an equitable standard 
for the distribution of funds intrusted to the Board. It is not, 
thexefore, the result of any mere educational theory, but a practical 
measure framed for the accomplishment of a definite and important 
object. But while this has been sought as the primary object, the 
Regents have endeavored to keep in view the purpose which such ex- 
aminations may serve, in elevating and regulating the standard of 
scholarship in the academies of the State. They have endeavored 
to keep them free from the objections which have been urged against 
systems of overstimulation in education. The stimulus has, in this 
case, been applied, not to the scholars, but to the schools, and that 
too in the direction of better and more thorough instruction. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 7 

If there is any valid objection to competitive examinations — and 
strong objections have been urged against them, on account of the 
temptation they offer to overwork and to hasty and superficial 
study — then it is to be remembered that these examinations are 
not competitive. The candidates are permitted to take whatever 
time is required for preparation ; to present the subjects in any order, 
and in any number; and are allowed such liberty in the choice of 
subjects as to give due room for variation in taste and talent. The 
examinations are arranged to mark the attainment of certain 
standards of education, and there is no limit to the number of those 
who may attain these standards, nor any competitive distinctions 
between them . . . There is no such system of secondary 
instruction in any other state in the union. There may be single 
schools in other states which are equal to, or even better than, the 
best of New York; but nowhere else are the schools for secondary 
instruction submitted to such requirements as to their equipment, 
and such tests as to scholarship, or can show as a result such a 
satisfactory record. This gratifying state of things is due, first, to 
the liberal policy which the State has from the beginning pursued 
toward education; and secondly, to the earnest and intelligent work 
of the principals and teachers, and to their hearty cooperation in 
every effort to advance the standards of scholarship in their insti- 
tutions. 

In December 1882 Dr Murray in explaining the revision of his 
syllabus writes: 

The present syllabus is a revision of the summary statement of 
the system of Regents examinations which was issued two years 
ago. The Regents have received so many proofs of the utility of 
that statement in facilitating the introduction and management 
of these examinations in the academical institutions under their 
visitation, that they have deemed it expedient to issue it in a revised 
and more detailed form. The experience of the past two years, 
aided by the friendly criticisms of^principals and teachers, has sug- 
gested various improvements in the administration of the system, 
whichfwillfbe found here explained. The additional experience in 
the practical working of the system of examinations has strength- 
ened the opinion that their effect upon the schools and upon 
the scholars is entirely salutary. Besides their principal and orig- 
inal use in providing a basis for the distribution of the funds 
intrusted to the Regents, they have served a higher educational 
purpose in elevating and regulating the standard of scholarship 
in the academies of the State. 

The edition of 1888 was prepared by Dr Albert B. Watkins with 
the assistance of a committee appointed by the Convocation and 
with the aid of suggestions from principals and teachers. It in- 
cluded a sketch of the system of examinations, general regulations, 
the subjects of examinations, Regents credentials and schedules of 
study. The Associated Academic Principals manifested a profound 
interest in the questions at issue by discussing the subjects to be 



8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

taught, the methods of instruction, the time allotted to each subject 
and its position in a normal curriculum. The five years' experience 
gained under the first syllabus offered ample field for accurate 
criticism and fixed the time limit for future editions. The enormous 
development of secondary schools by the formation of academic 
departments materially broadened the field of view and involved 
problems of administration calling for the readjustment of curricu- 
lums, the lengthening of the period of study and the lessening of 
the number of examinations. 

The edition of 1891 was edited by Dr James Russell Parsons jr, 
under the direction of Dr Watkins. It contained a syllabus of 
subjects in which regular examinations were held to meet the 
varying needs of the secondary schools of the State. Of 69 subjects 
outlined 34 were required for the English and classical diplomas. 
As a result of suggestions and criticisms from principals and teachers 
some important changes were made in the quantity and quality of 
the work required from the schools. Suggestions were offered 
looking towards improvement in methods of teaching, several courses 
in English were added to the list, general history and advanced 
arithmetic were included among the subjects for examination, and 
three year courses in French and German were provided. 

The syllabus of 1891 passed through 10 editions, there having been 
a surprising demand for copies in this and other countries. It 
received favorable comment in school reviews at home and abroad 
and some of the prescribed courses were translated for the benefit 
of foreign teachers. 

The edition of 1895 which was prepared by Dr James Russell 
Parsons jr, Director of Examinations, contained six preliminary 
and 71 academic subjects in which regular examinations were held. 
This revision introduced several important changes: the examina- 
tion formerly held in November was discontinued; schools were 
urged to hold two examinations annually instead of three; full 
four year courses were required for all graduating academic cre- 
dentials ; academic certificates were given for all preliminaries and 
any 24, 36, 48, 60 etc. counts, if one sixth of the 24, 36 and 48 counts 
were in English; no diploma was given that did not include all 
preliminaries and 48 academic counts of which eight were in English 
and not less than six from each of the mathematics, science and his- 
tory groups; new courses in English for the first, second and third 
years, in English classics from the Greek, Latin, German and French, 
in spheric trigonometry and in home science were added together 
with two reading courses in United States history ; psychology and 



EISTOMCAL SKETCH 9 

ethics were discontinued; an allowance of $5 was made for each 
regular academic certificate issued and $5 extra for the'first diploma ; 
and the premium of $5 on the classical diploma instituted in 1882 
was discontinued. 

The edition of 1900 was prepared by Head Inspector Charles F. 
Wheelock under the direction of Dr James Russell Parsons jr, the 
Secretary of the Board of Regents. The number of academic 
subjects in which examinations had been previously given was 
reduced from 75 to 61; four new subjects were added in manual 
training, and nine in business branches, making a total of 74. 
Eleven subjects in English were substituted for the 17 found in the 
edition of 1895. Outlines for three years' work in Spanish were 
added, similar to those for German and French. In this edition 
outlines for laboratory work in physics and chemistry appeared for 
the first time, and two years later students from schools maintaining 
laboratory courses in science under regulations prescribed by the 
Department, were allowed 20 credits towards their examinations. 
The Business Syllabus was primarily devised for private schools, 
but in 1905 more than 40 public high schools had established four 
year commercial courses and more than 70 had incorporated into 
their academic curriculum not less than five of the business subjects 
outll-i>i in the syllabus. 

A general view of the growth in the number of secondary schools 
and students and in the system of examinations is presented in the 
two following tables of statistics. 

NUMBER OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS 



Date 



Schools 



1787 


2 


1804 


17 


■1855 


171 


1864 


20I 


1874 


2l8 


1884 


260 


1894 


5°4 


1904 


799 



Students 




79 




993 


22 


824 


2 3 


°35 


31 


463 


34 


162 


49 


937 


I02 


279 



IO 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



EXAMINATIONS 



DATE 


PRELIMINARY 


ACADEMIC 


TOTAL 


School year 


Written 


Claimed 


Allowed 


Written 


Claimed 


Allowed 


Written Claimed 


Allowed 


1866-67 


51 689 

70 744 

85 446 

179 265 

231 388 


24 123 

28 726 

38 153 

119 348 

184 042 
















1873-74 

1883-84 , 

1893-94 
















34 688 

99 461 

174 274 


45 876 
192 611 
333 5<3i 


25 856 
132 939 
262 594 


23 229 
121 402 
220 898 


131 322 
371 876 
564 889 


64 009 
252 287 
446 636 


57 9i7 
220 863 
397 172 



The comparison is made between the whole number of answer 
papers written by the students, the number claimed to be up to the 
passing mark by the principals and the number accepted on review 
in the office of the Regents. 

In November 1865 printed preliminary question papers were 
sent to the schools for the first time. Answer papers were first 
reviewed in the office in 1870. In June 1878 academic question 
papers were sent to the schools for the first time. 

INTRODUCTORY NOTES 

This syllabus has been prepared to indicate the general scope and 
character of the instruction to be given by the teacher and the work 
to be done by the student. By this means it is expected that 
adequate attention will be given to the essentials of each subject, 
that approved principles of teaching will be observed and that 
embarrassment to students in examinations arising from defective 
methods of instruction or the use of different textbooks, may be 
obviated. It is not designed, however, to interfere with such flexi- 
bility in courses of study and freedom in methods of instruction as 
ought to exist in secondary schools; but to indicate sub- 
jects of study for elementary and secondary schools and to present 
outlines of these subjects in the form of. graded series of suggested 
texts for the study of English and the foreign languages, lists of 
topics and experiments for the laboratory sciences, definitions of 
standard requirements in mathematics and topical analyses for 
history and other subjects. 

The list of subjects included in the syllabus of 1905 is as follows: 



Reading 
Writing 
Spelling 
English 



Preliminary subjects 

Arithmetic 
Geography 
United States history with civics 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES 



II 



Academic subjects 

Group I — Language and literature 



(4 First year English) 
(3 Second year English) 
3 Third year English 
3 Fourth year English 



ENGLISH 



English grammar 
History of the English lan- 
guage and literature 



(5 First year Latin) 
1 Latin grammar 
1 Elementary Latin compo- 
sition 

3 Caesar 

4 Cicero 
4 Virgil 

1 Latin composition 
1 Translation of prose at sight 
1 Translation of poetry at 
sight 



ANCIENT 



(5 First year Greek) 

1 Greek grammar 

1 Elementary Greek compo 

sition 
3 Anabasis 
3 Iliad 

1 Greek composition 
1 Translation of prose at sight 
1 Translation of Homer 

sight 



at 



MODERN FOREIGN 



(5 First year German) 
5 Elementary German 
5 Intermediate German 
5 Advanced German 
(5 First year French) 
5 Elementary French 



5 Intermediate French 
5 Advanced French 
(5 First year Spanish) 
5 Elementary Spanish 
5 Intermediate Spanish 



Group II — Mathematics 

2 Advanced arithmetic 5 Plane geometry 

5 Elementary algebra 2 Solid geometry 

2 Intermediate algebra 2 Trigonometry 

3 Advanced algebra 



5 Physics 

5 Chemistry 

5 Biology 

2% Elementary botany 

2 1 Elementary zoology 



Group III — Science 

2\ Physiology and hygiene 

5 Advanced botany 

5 Advanced zoology 

5 Physical geography 

3 Agriculture 



Group IV— 

3 or 5 Ancient history 
3 or 5 European history 
3 or 5 English history 



-History and social science 

5 American history with civics 

2 Civics 

2 Economics 



12 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Group V — Business subjects 

4 Elementary bookkeeping 3 Commercial geography 

3 Advanced bookkeeping 2 Business correspondence 

2 Business practice and tech- 1 Business writing 

nics 3 Stenography (50 words) 

2 Business arithmetic 3 Stenography (100 words) 

2 Commercial law 2 Typewriting 
2 History of commerce 

Group VI — Other subjects 

2 History and principles of 3 Advanced drawing 
education 2 First year home science 

3 Psychology and principles of 2 Second year home science 
education 2 First year shopwork 

3 Drawing 2 Second year shopwork 

The numerals prefixed to the subjects in the above list indicate 
the number of lessons a week for a year and also the number of 
counts to be earned thereby. 

Examinations. Examination questions are to be based upon the 
syllabus, but the instruction of the schools and the tests of the 
Department may fairly be expected to give recognition to im- 
portant discoveries in science and such significant changes among 
the nations as shall result in modifications of territorial limits or 
systems of government. The plea that particular textbooks are 
deficient will not be accepted in extenuation of inadequate knowl- 
edge. Special efforts will be made to state examination questions 
clearly and not to demand a degree of knowledge or skill in state- 
ment that may not reasonably be required from students in second- 
ary schools. On the other hand the schools should contribute their 
share towards the success of the examinations by not permitting 
their students to attempt them until they have satisfactorily com- 
pleted the work prescribed by the syllabus. Special attention is 
called to the following slightly modified quotation taken from the 
High School Department Report of 1898: 

A system of examinations adapted to the work of all the schools 
of a great state must of necessity be somewhat different from one 
intended for the students of a single school. The personality of the 
teacher, the local environment and the textbook used all tend to vary 
the work done in the different schools. As a result the exact course 
covered in any subject and the emphasis given to the different parts 
of it will not be precisely the same in any two schools in the Univer- 
sity. This is as it should be, for were it not so the work would lack in- 
dividuality and life. To provide for these conditions the Academic 
Syllabus gives, in general terms, very full outlines of the subjects in 
which examinations are held. These outlines are in fact so full that 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES 1 3 

it will be quite impossible for any one class in the time allotted to 
study exhaustively all the topics mentioned, and no one textbook 
would furnish the material for such exhaustive study. It is 
here that the alternative or group system of questions comes in to 
give relief. This gives the student a chance to show what he knows, 
which is quite a different thing from an attempt to find out what he 
does not know. If a question paper has been properly prepared 
and a class has been properly instructed, each candidate should find 
on the paper some questions that relate to matters which have not 
been taken up in detail in his study of the subject. If this is not the 
case it is evidence either that the questions have not been properly 
distributed over the whole field, or that the instruction and study 
have been distributed over too much of the field. If teachers 
and students will take this attitude toward the examination system, 
all of its limiting and hampering effects will disappear and it will be, 
as it is intended to be, stimulating in the best sense. The teacher 
who expects to train a class of students in 40 weeks to answer any 
legitimate question in any branch of science or history or literature, or 
who leads his students to expect to do it, must certainly have a very- 
narrow view both of the subject-matter studied and of the mind 
of the student. 

Complying with a vote of the Associated Academic Principals the 
Department beginning with the class entering the secondary school 
in September 1905, will issue two examinations in English: the first 
to cover the work of the first three years (10 counts), the second to 
test the work of the fourth year (3 counts) . 

The reasons presented for the abolishment of the first and second 
year tests in English seem to be equally applicable to the first year 
examinations in the foreign languages. Accordingly students omit- 
ting the first year examinations in German, French or Spanish will 
be credited with 10 counts on passing the "elementary " examinations 
in each of those languages which will be designed to test the work of 
the first two years. In like manner, students omitting the first 
year examinations in Latin and Greek will receive double credits on 
passing the tests in Caesar (6)^ Latin grammar (2), elementary 
Latin composition (2) , Xenophon (6) , Greek grammar (2) , elementary 
Greek composition (2). The Department believes it to be for the 
good of the schools to lessen the number and frequency of formal 
examinations given to immature students, but first year question 
papers in the foreign languages and in first year and second year 
English will be issued to junior and middle schools, and to other 
schools on request. 

Credentials. After mature deliberation the Department has 
decided to base the academic diploma upon a four year curriculum 
which requires a student to pursue four subjects of study at a time 
with at least 18 lessons a week. This increase in the requirements 



14 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

has been made for the following reasons : (i) an investigation made 
by the Department in 1902 showed that the average number of lea- 
sons a week for students in the high schools of the State was £E8& 
(2) the records of the Department show that a majority of stu- 
dents under the requirement of 15 lessons a week obtain, on the 
average, a four year diploma in three years ; (3) a broad and symmet- 
rical secondary school education can not now be acquired by a stu- 
dent pursuing less than four subjects simultaneously; (4) the re- 
quirements for admission to normal schools, training schools, col- 
leges and technical schools make it necessary. The wisdom of this 
decision is amply supported by the experience of France and Ger- 
many in the corresponding years of whose secondary schools the 
average number of lessons a week is respectively 25 and 30. 

This increase of requirements makes necessary a corresponding 
change in the system of "counts." Hitherto 12 counts have been 
given for a year's work of 1 5 lessons a week — 48 counts for a diploma. 
Hereafter 18 counts will be given for a year's work of 18 lessons a 
week — 72 counts for a diploma. 

The proposed increased requirement of 18 lessons a week will go 
into operation in September 1905 but is not to be retroactive. 
Therefore the number of counts required under the new scheme of 
values for an academic diploma will be as follows : 

To June 1 , 1 906 48 counts 

Between June i, 1906, and June 1, 1907 63 counts 

Between June 1, 1907, and June 1, 1908 66 counts 

Between June 1, 1908, and June 1, 1909 69 counts 

June 1, 1909, and thereafter. . .- 72 counts 

All credits earned before June 1 , 1906, will be recorded as hitherto. 
When these credits are applied to credentials issued subsequent to 
June 1, 1906, their value will be increased 25%, since 12 counts 
under one scheme of values are exactly equal to 1 5 under the other. 

To enable the Department to issue examinations that shall fully 
protect the rights and interests of weak or slowly developing 
students and, at the same time test adequately the knowledge and 
training of the most capable, the following system of differentiated 
credentials has been adopted and will go into operation with the 
class that shall be graduated in June 1909. 

1 A diploma based upon a general average of 65. 

2 A diploma, with credit, based on a general average of 75. 

3 A diploma, with great credit, based on a general average of 85. 

4 A diploma, with highest credit, based on a general average of 90. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES 1 5 

In computing general averages the rating of any answer paper not 
below 60 may be included. 

The requirements for the academic diploma which is issued only 
to students taking the Department's preliminary and academic 
examinations, are as follows: English 13 credits, mathematics 10, 
history 10, science 10, elective 29. For the classical academic 
diploma: English 13 credits, mathematics 10, history 5, science 5, 
Latin 20, a second foreign language 15, elective 4. These new 
requirements go into effect June i, 1909. 



GROUP i 

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 

ENGLISH 

First year English English grammar 

Second year English History of the English 

Third year English language and literature 
Fourth year English 

The syllabus that follows is of necessity general, since it is de- 
signed for schools working under widely different conditions. It is 
suggested, therefore, that each school work out for itself a more 
detailed syllabus based upon this and supplementing it in various 
places. The books for reading and study are for the class entering 
the high school in September 1905, and for succeeding classes. 

1 The elements of the course of study in English are literature, 
composition and rhetoric and grammar. 

2 Literature, (a) The books prescribed are selected from those 
specified in the uniform requirements recommended by a conference 
composed of delegates from the four associations of colleges and 
preparatory schools in New England, the Middle States, the North 
Central States, and the South. It is expected, however, that each 
school will add to this list as many books as can be read to advan- 
tage in the time devoted to English. The degree of intensity with 
which any of these shall be studied, and the assignment of them for 
class work or for home reading are left to the option of each school. 
It should be remembered that a few books well read have much 
greater educational value than many books read superficially, and 
yet that a work studied too long or too minutely dulls the student's 
interest and thereby impairs his power to prosecute the study of 
literature with pleasure and profit. 

(b) In order to encourage the habit of reading good books, care- 
fully selected lists should be prepared to guide students in supple- 
mentary reading. These should illustrate some principle of selec- 
tion. They should be chosen, for example, because of their direct 
appeal to the interests of the student ; or because of their relation to 
some literary type or period ; or because of their value in connection 
with some special phase of work in composition. The teacher 
should assist the student in the selection of books, and should require 
written reports and conduct class discussions on books read out of 
school. 

16 



ENGLISH 17 

(c) In the reading and study of books the student not only should 
gain an adequate knowledge of the selected texts but also should 
give due consideration to the literary epochs and types represented 
by these texts and should memorize choice selections of prose and 
poetry. 

3 Composition and rhetoric. Certain kinds of composition are 
definitely prescribed for the several terms, but this should not be 
interpreted to mean that only one form should be practised during 
a term. On the contrary, the work of every term should' include 
practice in the forms studied in previous terms. To secure variety 
students may be called upon to write stories, anecdotes, abstracts, 
character sketches, descriptions of persons and places, news items, 
editorials, and imaginative themes suggested by the literature. 
Although most of the compositions required may properly 
be short, at least one each term should be long enough to 
demand some sustained effort. When completed it should repre- 
sent the student's best possible work in writing English. To this 
end care should be taken that the subject chosen be one that is 
within the grasp and experience of the student, or one that 
may easily be made the subject of investigation. A discriminat- 
ing study of models is advantageous if not carried to an extreme. 
The preparation of outlines before compositions are written is help- 
ful in securing unity, coherence and proportion. Students should be 
trained to correct their own mistakes. 

A knowledge of rhetoric is of value only as it is related to the 
study of literature and composition. Hence familiarity with the 
elements and terminology of rhetoric should be developed gradually 
from a material found in literature and put into use in the com- 
positions of the students. Moreover, students should have acquaint- 
ance with, the main characteristics of the more important literary 
types, such as the epic, lyric, essay, novel and drama. Adequate 
attention should be given to versification in the study of poetry and 
to figures of speech as they occur in the literature read. 

4 Oral expression. In connection with all work in English, 
particularly in the first year, attention should be paid to the de- 
velopment of clearness in oral expression. Students should not 
only be helped in every way to overcome common errors in speech, 
but should also be trained to express themselves clearly and forcibly 
in sustained discourse. In this work constant attention should be 
given to distinctness of utterance, to pronunciation, inflection and 
phrasing. 

5 Grammar. The study of grammar has been distributed 
throughout the various half years on the principle that the work will 



l8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

be done better and more easily if it is kept constantly in the minds 
of the students. As students pass from the first year to the second 
and from the second to the third, more and more should be expected 
of them in the way of accurate and logical thinking. The study of 
the functions of the various elements of the sentence should help 
them better to understand thought and to express it. On the other 
hand, training in thinking and in expressing thought should help 
them to understand the various grammatical relations. The study 
of grammar is subordinate to the study of literature and composition. 
The degree of intensity with which it shall be pursued must be left 
to the option of each school; but it is not expected that any school 
will deal with difficult idioms or grammatical puzzles. 

Before they leave the high school, however, students should be 
able to explain the common grammatical relations of the sentence 
as they are found in the prose and verse of standard literature. 
Analysis and parsing when used in connection with the study of 
literature should be employed only for the purpose of elucidating 
difficult constructions or involved sentences. Baser material will 
serve the purpose of practice exercises. 

6 Spelling and punctuation. Throughout the course instruction 
is to be given in spelling and punctuation, as the need may arise. 
The range of instruction in spelling should include proper names 
occurring in the literature read, words misspelled in compositions, 
and in general, all words in the student's vocabulary. During 
the earlier part of the course only a few of the more important 
principles of punctuation should be reviewed; but before the close 
of the fourth year, every student should have received such instruc- 
tion as will enable him to punctuate fully and accurately. 

7 Additional suggestions, (a) Throughout the course students 
should be taught incidentally how to use dictionaries, encyclopedias, 
and general works of reference. 

(b) Students should acquire a general knowledge of the history 
of the English language. 

(c) There should be close correlation between work in English 
and other branches of school activity. In part this may be accom- 
plished by selecting as the subject-matter of composition, informa- 
tion acquired by students in other departments. 

(d) Teachers should encourage a systematic use of the library to 
aid in the study of literature and to give to students experience in 
collecting data, in judging of the relative importance of historical 
and biographical facts, and in using matter thus obtained in oral 
and written compositions. 



ENGLISH 19 

FIRST YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
first year is to arouse an interest in reading, to teach how to read and 
to develop, through reading, the power to form vivid mental pic- 
tures. To this end books should be selected, first of all, for their 
wholesome interest to boys and girls. They should be chosen, also 
with a view to multiply the student's interests and thus to prepare 
him to read other books to advantage. Some, for example, may 
treat of chivalry, some of romance, others of history, and still others 
of the classic myths and medieval legends. 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 
I Coleridge. The Ancient Mariner 
Macaulay. Lays of Ancient Rome 
Lowell. The Vision of Sir Launfal . 
II Scott. Ivanhoe 

Dickens. A Tale of Two Cities 
Gaskell. Cranford 
Suggested. Narratives in both prose and verse by various authors, 
for example, Scott, Cooper, Tennyson, Hawthorne, Long- 
fellow, Whittier, Stevenson and Kipling, and a good translation 
of the Iliad or the Odyssey. 
Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the first year is to secure facility in 
expression, with some degree of accuracy. To this end students 
should write many compositions. While the criticism of the teacher 
must be concerned with matters of grammar, spelling and punctua- 
tion it should be largely constructive. 

The work of the term shall be as follows: 

1 Letter writing with attention to substance as well as to form. 

2 Short themes, both oral and written, based on the experience 
of the student and on the literature of the term. Emphasis shall 
be laid on narration. 

3 A review of capitalization and of the simpler principles of 
punctuation. Elementary study of the principles of unity and co- 
herence as applied to the whole composition and to sentences in 
compositions. 

Grammar. The analysis of easy sentences and the application of 
the principles of grammar in composition. 



2Q NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

FIRST YEAR 
SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 
I Irving. Sketch book 
Lamb. Essays of Elia 
Bacon. Essays 
II Browning. Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How They 
Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, Evelyn Hope, 
Home Thoughts from Abroad, Home Thoughts from the 
Sea, Incident of the French Camp, The Boy and the 
Angel, One Word More,- Herve" Riel, Pheidippides 
Tennyson. Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, The 

' Passing of Arthur 
Palgrave. Golden Treasury (first series), book IV, with 
special attention to Wordsworth, Keats and Shelley 
Suggested: Descriptive literature by various authors, for ex- 
ample, Hawthorne, Lowell, Gray, Goldsmith, Poe, Blackmore, 
Burroughs and Irving 
Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as 
follows : 

i Short compositions, both oral and written, based on the ex- 
perience of the student and on the literature read. Emphasis shall 
be laid on description. The subjects chosen should be simple in 
character, and should relate to what the student has seen in real 
life or in imagination. 

2 Elementary study of unity and coherence in the composition 
and in the sentence. The function of the paragraph. 

Grammar. Continuation of the work of the previous half year. 

SECOND YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
second year is to arouse an interest in good books and to develop 
power to think accurately. 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups: 
I The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the Spectator 
Bunyan. The Pilgrim's Progress, part I 
Franklin. Autobiography 
II Shakspere. As You Like It, The Merchant of Venice, 
Twelfth Night 



ENGLISH 21 

Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching com- 
position and rhetoric in the second year is to secure clearness of 
thought in exposition and argument. 

The work of the term shall be as follows: 

i Short themes, both oral and written, of various types. Em- 
phasis should be laid on exposition. The subjects chosen should be 
for the most part concrete, carefully limited, and within the stu- 
dent's experience. Practice should be given in defining terms. 

2 Further study of paragraph structure with respect to unity, 
coherence and emphasis; the use of the topic sentence; connec- 
tives; the methods of transition. 

Grammar. Study of tenses and modes; their distinctions in 
meaning; consistency in their use in composition. 

SECOND YEAR 

SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups: 
I George Eliot. Silas Marner 

Goldsmith. The Vicar of Wakefield 
Hawthorne. The House of the Seven Gables 
• II Goldsmith. The Deserted Village 

Palgrave. Golden Treasury (first series), books Il^and III, 
with special attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper 
and Burns 
Pope. The Rape of the Lock 
Composition and rhetoric. The work' of the term shall be as 
follows: 

i Short themes in narration, description and exposition. 

2 Elementary argumentation, oral and written, based upon 
questions familiar to the student. Students should have practice 
in framing propositions on topics of interest to them, in defining 
terms, and in differentiating introduction, proof, and conclusion. 
Emphasis should be laid on the distinction between assertion and 
proof. 

3 Kinds of sentences : long and short, periodic and loose, balanced, 
rhetorical question, etc. Variety in sentence structure. Unity, 
coherence and emphasis in the sentence. 

Grammar. Continuation of the work of the previous half year 
with, emphasis On connectives and the various functions of phrases 
and clauses. 



22 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

THIRD YEAR 
FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
third year is to develop power to discriminate and compare literary- 
types and values, and to stimulate a finer feeling for literature. 
Required for reading. One from each of the following groups: 
I De Quincey. Joan of Arc and the English Mail Coach 
Emerson. Essays (selected) 
Ruskin. Sesame and Lilies 
II Shakspere. Henry V, Julius Caesar 
Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the third year is to develop in students 
the power to express their ideas with simplicity, accuracy, and full- 
ness. 

The work of the term shall be as follows : 
i Short themes of various types. 

2 Narration, which shall include anecdotes, historical sketches, 
biographical sketches, and stories with simple plots. 

3 Continued study of exposition and argumentation which shall 
include the study of various methods of paragraph development 
and shall be pursued with increasing insistence on unity, coherence, 
and emphasis in the paragraph. 

4 Study of diction; synonyms and antonyms; specific and 
general terms ; words frequently confused. 

Grammar. Study of the various functions of the infinitive and 
the participle. 

I THIRD YEAR ] 

SECOND HALF 

Literature. A review of the books read in the preceding terms 
with some attention to the literary history of the epochs which they 
represent. 1 

Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as fol- 
lows: 

i Short themes of various types. 

2 Description: the requirements shall show a distinct advance 
over those in the first year in variety of subject and method of treat- 
ment. Description of persons, of landscapes, of buildings, of scenes 

1 Students taking the first, second and third year examinations in English will omit the 
review of books read in preceding terms, and instead take Julius Cqesqr the fifth term and 
Henry V the sixth term, 



ENGLISH 23 

of action, and descriptions from both fixed and moving points of 
view are all illustrations of the variety of the problems that may be 
assigned. 

3 Continued work in exposition which shall include at least one 
theme of some length carefully developed through a preliminary 
outline, and demanding clear explanation of a somewhat complex, 
though familiar object of first-hand knowledge. 

4 Continuation of the study of diction, especially in connection 
with work in description. Furthur study of the structure of the 
whole composition and of the methods of paragraph development. 

Grammar. A systematic review of the principles of English 
grammar. 

FOURTH YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
fourth year is to develop the insight and the breadth of view result- 
ing from the application of the lessons of literature to the problems 
of life. 

Required for study. 

Burke. Speech on Conciliation with America, 

or 
f Washington. Farewell Address and ) 
( Webster. First Bunker Hill Oration J 

and 
Milton. Lycidas, Comus, L'allegro, and II penseroso 
Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the fourth year is to develop power to 
reason soundly, and to read critically. 
The work of the term shall be as follows : 

1 Short themes of various types. 

2 Paragraphs illustrative of elements in argumentation; e.g. an 
appeal to the interests of an audience, the clear statement of a 
question, various methods of developing proof, summaries of proof, 
etc. 

3 At least one argument of considerable length, developed 
through formal introduction and brief. The work should demand 
more of the students than did the argumentation of the second year. 
The topics chosen should deal with such questions of the day as are 
well within the grasp of students. 

4 A review of the principles of unity ; coherence and emphasis in 
sentences, paragraphs and compositions. 



24 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION- DEPARTMENT 

Grammar. The study of grammar continued in connection with 
the work in literature and composition, with special attention to the 
simpler idiomatic and elliptical expressionsof standard English. 



FOURTH YEAR 

SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for study. 

Macaulay. Life of Johnson, or 
Carlyle. Essay on Burns 

and 
Shakspere. Macbeth 
Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as 
follows : 

i Themes of various types. 

2 A composition of considerable length. The student should 
have perfect freedom in the choice of literary form and be expected 
to express himself correctly and forcibly in clear, idiomatic English. 
This production should be a final measure of his ability to write. 
Grammar. Continuation of the work of the previous half year. 



APPENDIX 

I Uniform college entrance requirements in English for the years 

1909, 1910, 1911 

Note. No candidate will be accepted in English whose work is notably 
defective in point of spelling, punctuation,, idiom, or division into 
paragraphs. 

(a) Reading and practice. A certain number of books will be 
recommended for reading, 10 of which, selected as prescribed below, 
are to be offered for examination. The form of examination will 
usually be the writing of a paragraph or two on each of several 
topics, to be chosen by the candidate from a considerable number — 
perhaps 10 or 15 — set before him in the examination paper. The 
treatment of these topics is designed to test the candidate's power 
of clear and accurate expression, and will call for only a general 
knowledge of the substance of the books. In every case knowledge 
of the book will be regarded as less important than the ability to 
write good English. In place of a part or the whole of this test, the 
candidate may present an exercise book, properly certified to by his 



ENGLISH 25 

instructor, containing compositions or other written work done in 
connection with the reading of the books. In preparation for this 
part of the requirement, it is important that the candidate shall 
have been instructed in the fundamental principles of rhetoric. 

1909, 1910, 1911 

Group I (two to be selected) . Shakspere's As you Like It, Henry 
V, Julius Caesar, The Merchant of Venice, Twelfth Night. 

Group II (one to be selected). Bacon's Essays; Bunyan's The 
Pilgrim's Progress, part I ; The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the 
Spectator; Franklin's Autobiography. 

Group III (one to be selected). Chaucer's Prologue; Spenser's 
Faerie Queene (selections) ; Pope's The Rape of the Lock; Goldsmith's 
The Deserted Village; Palgrave's Golden Treasury (first series), 
books II and III, with especial attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, 
Cowper and Burns. 

Group IV (two to be selected). Goldsmith's The Vicar of 
Wakefield; Scott's Ivanhoe; Scott's Quentin Durward; Hawthorne's 
The House of the Seven Gables; Thackeray's Henry Esmond; Mrs 
Gaskell's Cranford; Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities; George Eliot's 
Silas Marner; Blackmore's Lorna Doone. 

Group V (two to be selected). Irving's Sketch Book; Lamb's 
Essays of Elia; DeQuincey's Joan of Arc and The English Mail Coach; 
Carlyle's Heroes and Hero Worship; Emerson's Essays (selected) ; 
Ruskin's Sesame and Lilies. 

Group VI (two to be selected). Coleridge's The Ancient Mariner; 
Scott's The Lady of the Lake; Byron's Mazeppa and The Prisoner of 
Chillon; Palgrave's Golden Treasury (first series), book IV, with 
especial attention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley; Macaulay's 
Lays of Ancient Rome; Poe's Poems; Lowell's The Vision of Sir 
Launfal; Arnold's Sohrab and Rustum; Longfellow's The Court- 
ship of Miles Standish; Tennyson's Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot 
and Elaine, and The Passing of Arthur; Browning's Cavalier Tunes, 
The Lost Leader, How they Brought the Good News from Ghent to 
Aix, Evelyn Hope, Home Thoughts from Abroad, Home Thoughts 
from the Sea, Incident of the French Camp, The Boy and the Angel, 
One Word More, Herve Riel, Pheidippides. 

(b) Study and practice. This part of the examination pre- 
supposes the thorough study of each of the works named below. 
The examination will be upon subject-matter, form and structure. 

In addition, the candidate may be required to answer questions 
involving the essentials of English grammar, and questions on the 
leading facts in those periods of English literary history to which 
the prescribed works belong. 



26 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

The books set for this part of the examination will be: 
1909, 1910, 1911: Shakspere's Macbeth; Milton's Lycidas, 
Comus, L 'allegro and 27 penseroso; Burke's Speech on Conciliation 
with America, or Washington's Farewell Address and Webster's 
First Bunker Hill Oration; Macaulay's Life of Johnson, or Carlyle's 
Essay on Burns. 

II List of books for supplementary reading recommended by the 
National Educational Association 

FIRST YEAR 

i Whittier. Snow Bound 

2 Lamb. Tales of Shakspere 

3 Hawthorne. Wonder Book 

4 Hawthorne. Tanglewood Tales 

5 Kipling. Jungle Book No. 1 

6 Kipling. Jungle Book No. 2 

7 Austen. Betty Alden 

8 Burroughs. Sharp Eyes 

9 Franklin. Autobiography of Franklin 

10 Hughes. Tom Brown at Rugby 

11 Aldrich. Story of a Bad Boy 

12 Dickens. Nicholas Nickleby 

13 Dana. Two Years before the Mast 

14 Webster. Bunker Hill Speeches 

15 Irving. Sketch Book 

16 Washington's Rules of Conduct, Farewell Address, and Lincoln's 

Inaugural and Gettysburg Speech 

17 Hale. Man Without a Country 

18 Dodge. Hans Brinker 

19 Scott. Ivanhoe 

20 Scott. Quentin Durward 

2 1 Longfellow. Tales of a Wayside Inn 

22 Grinnell. The Story of the Indian 

23 Jewett. Tales of New England 

24 Warner. Being a Boy 

2 5 Shakspere. Merchant of Venice 

26 Allen. The Choir Invisible 

2 7 Irving-Fiske. Life of Washington 

28 D'Amicis. Cuore 

29 McDonald. Back of the North Wind 

30 Macaulay's or Chesterfield's Letters 



ENGLISH 27 

SECOND YEAR 

i Lowell. Vision of Sir Launfal 

2 Scott. Lady of the Lake 

3 Scott. Marmion 

4 Browning, Mrs. Lyrics and Sonnets (" Cry of the Children") 

5 The Lake Poets, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey 

6 Shakspere. Julius Caesar 

7 Pope. Translations from the Iliad (books I, VI, XXII, XXIV) 

8 Cooper. Last of the Mohicans 

9 Irving. Tales of a Traveler 

10 Fiske. The War of Independence 

11 Kaufmann. Young Folk's Plutarch 

12 Plato. Apology of Socrates 

13 Warner. Back Log Studies 

14 Griffis. Brave Little Holland 

15 Froude. Julius Caesar 

16 Miller, Olive T. Little People of Asia 

17 Hale. Bulfmch's Mythology 

18 Hawthorne. Twice Told Tales 

19 Muloch. John Halifax 

20 Scott. Kenilworth 

2 1 Dickens. Tale of Two Cities 

22 Brown, John, Dr. Rab and His Friends 

23 Preston & Dodge. The Private Life of the Romans 

24 Roosevelt & Lodge. Hero Tales from American History 

25 Chester. Girls and Women 

26 Rolfe. Shakspere the Boy 

28 Stockton. Rudder Grange Stories 

29 Eggleston. The Hoosier Schoolmaster 

30 Roosevelt. Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail 

THIRD YEAR 

1 Shakspere. Richard II 

2 Shakspere. Twelfth Night 

3 Shakspere. Macbeth 

4 Irving. Legends of the Alhambra 

5 Eliot. Silas Marner 

6 Lowell & Arnold, Matthew. Critical Essays 

7 Wendell Phillips. Lectures and Speeches 

8 Henty, C. A. Wulf the Saxon 

9 Fiske. Political Ideas 

10 Henty. The Young Carthaginian 



28 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

1 1 Kingsley. The Roman and the Teuton 

1 2 Milton. Minor Poems 

13 Goldsmith. Vicar of Wakefield 

14 Emerson. Essay on Friendship 

15 Stevenson. Kidnapped 

16 Hawthorne. Our Old Home 

17 Craddock. Prophet of Great Smoky Mountain 

1 8 Dickens. Dombey and Son 

19 Winthrop. John Brent 

20 Blackmore. Lorna Doone 

21 Milton. Paradise Lost (books I, II) 

23 Curtis. Prue and I 

24 Thackeray. The Newcomes 

25 Holmes. Autocrat of the Breakfast Table 

26 Ebers. Uarda 

27 Macaulay. Lord Clive 

28 Wallace. Ben Hur 

29 Dryden. Palamon and Arcite 

30 Church. Roman Life in the Days of Cicero 

FOURTH YEAR 

1 Shakspere. Hamlet 

2 Addison. Sir Roger de Coverley Papers in the Spectator 

3 Fiske. Critical Period of American History 

4 Bryce. American Commonwealth (abridged) 

5 Carlyle. Essay on Burns (and Poems) 

6 Mackenzie. Nineteenth Century 

7 Gaskell. Life of Charlotte Bronte* 

8 Schurz. Abraham Lincoln 

9 Riis. How the Other Half Lives 

10 Black. Judith Shakespeare 

11 Ebers. Egyptian Princess 

12 Fiske. The Destiny of Man 

13 Macaulay. Warren Hastings 

14 Thackeray. Henry Esmond 

15 Tennyson. Princess 

16 Austen. Pride and Prejudice 

17 Hawthorne. Marble Faun 

18 Dickens. David Copperfield 

20 Coleridge. Rime of the Ancient Mariner 

21 Winter. Shakspere's England 

22 Ruskin. Sesame and Lilies . 



ENGLISH 29 

23 Spencer. On Style (part 1) 

24 Burke. Speech on Conciliation with America 

25 Emerson. Conduct of Life 

26 Macaulay. Milton and Addison 

27 Thoreau. Walden 

28 Warner. My Summer in a Garden 

29 Emerson. Essay on Manners 

30 Eliot. Romola 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

This syllabus has been prepared for such students as desire a more 
exact and complete knowledge of the principles of English grammar 
than can be gained from the prescribed four year course in English. 
The examination will be adapted to the capacity of students in 
the third or fourth year of the high school and will be based upon 
the following outline of topics as treated in the best standard text- 
books on this subject: 

1 Analysis and classification of sentences; functions of word, 
phrase and clause elements; subdivision, inflection, and syntax of 
the parts of speech. 

2 The use of grammatical analysis for the purpose of elucidating 
obscure or complex constructions. Such exercises in interpreta- 
tion may be given incidentally in connection with the reading of 
masterpieces, but they should be given also in connection with the 
study of literary material selected for this special purpose. 

3 The classification of the common errors of written and spoken 
language and their correction by the student through the applica- 
tion of the rules of grammar. 



HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 

This outline of study has been prepared to supplement the 
regular instruction in English and is designed for the fourth year. 
It includes the history of English literature from its beginnings in 
Saxon times to the present day, the history of American literature, 
and the more important phases of the development of English 
vocabulary and idiom. In the study of the history of literature, 
emphasis should be laid upon prominent movements and tend- 
encies. Such movements should be shown to be related, either as 
cause or as effect, to important changes in national conditions and 
ideals. Especial attention should be given to premonitory indica- 



30 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

tions of new tendencies in letters or in life. One author in each 
period should be selected as typical of some tendency, and writers 
of similar characteristics should be grouped about him. Traits 
noted in his works should be noted in theirs, as well as in the work 
of authors preceding or following. The absence of certain traits 
may be no less significant. The details of the author's life should 
be studied only in so far as they make clear the exact nature of his 
accomplishment and the personal characteristics and external con- 
ditions that account for it. 

The student should be led to apply what he learns in this course 
to the books that he has previously studied. He should be enabled 
to place them in true historical perspective and in proper relation- 
ship to each other and to other works of literature. Additional 
reading should be undertaken both to widen this field and to in- 
tensify impressions. In so far as is practicable, the student should 
read from each author, not merely about him. He should rather 
be helped to perceive characteristics for himself than asked to 
accept them from textbook or teacher. 

Some suitable textbook in the history of English literature 
should be in use, supplemented by a small library including the 
better known works of general literature, selected prose and verse, 
works of criticism and of social history, and larger works upon the 
history of literature, English, American, and foreign, and upon the 
history of the English language. 

This course should be closely articulated with that carried out in 
accordance with the general suggestions made in the regular syllabus. 
To the extent that such offer suitable material, the books for sup- 
plementary reading should be chosen from those given in the 
uniform college entrance requirements [see p. 2 6 J. 



GROUP i {continued) 
LATIN AND GREEK 

First year Latin Translation of prose at sight 

Latin grammar Translation of poetry at sight 

Elementary Latin composition First year Greek 

Caesar Greek grammar 

The first four books of the Gallic Elementary Greek composition 

War Xenophon 

Cicero The fij. s t f our books of the Anabasis 

The four Catilinian orations, the Homer's Iliad 
Archias and the Manilian Law 
Virgil 

The first six books of the 
Aeneid 



The first three books 
Greek composition 
Translation of prose at sight 



Latin composition Translation of Homer at sight 

The committee representing the Associated Academic Principals 
decided to modify their original report by recommending that the 
examinations in Latin and Greek given by the Department be 
expressed in the terms generally employed by the colleges to indi- 
cate their requirements for admission. This amended report is 
now in substantial accord with the definitions of requirements 
recommended by the American Philological Association. 

General suggestions. In the teaching of Latin and Greek three 
lines of work must be carried forward simultaneously: (i) inflec- 
tion and derivation, (2) syntax, (3) interpretation and translation. 
During the first year the first of these must receive the most atten- 
tion. At no time, however, should the three be separated. The 
final translation into English is the capstone of a building whose 
foundations and walls depend on correct knowledge of the first 
two. In the following outlines the chief emphasis has been put 
on matters of grammar during the first year's work. The acquisi- 
tion of an adequate vocabulary, with ability to recognize words 
as readily by sound as by sight, and the attainment of power to 
follow the sense in the words and order of the original, are also of 
great importance and should not be deferred. If this work is well 
and faithfully done, the victory is gained. The student may then 
give more attention to the literary side of his reading and to the 
various questions connected with the subject-matter of the authors 
studied. 

To acquire power to understand and ability to translate a foreign 
language it is essential that the student should have constant 



32 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

practice in elementary composition and in translations at sight. 
Oral and written "composition fixes the student's vocabulary in 
mind, serves as a constant review of the forms and quickens his 
sensitiveness to the peculiar significance of the order of words in 
the prose sentence and to the difference of meaning between simi- 
lar words and constructions. Exercises in the reading of unpre- 
pared passages enable the teacher to discern and to meet the 
student's difficulties in the interpretation of a new sentence, and 
give the student readiness in translation and a feeling of mastery 
over the language. Rapid reading, as well as an exact interpreta- 
tion, is necessary to true scholarship." 

LATIN 

First year. The work of this year should be intensive, and 
should furnish by constant drill a sound foundation for the work 
of later years. It should include a thoroughly mastered vocabu- 
lary of at least 600 or 700 common Latin words. Of these the 
force of the most common prefixes, suffixes and roots should be 
known, the quantity of the penultimate and final syllables learned, 
and all common paradigms and forms thoroughly committed to 
memory and made easily usable by constant drill and application. 
Special attention should be given during the first year to the forma- 
tion of correct habits of translation, and no result should be re- 
garded as satisfactory in this direction till the Latin can be ren- 
dered naturally and fluently into exact and idiomatic English. 
This being very largely a matter of practice, frequent and rapid 
reviews can not be too urgently recommended. The previous 
acquaintance of the student with the principles of English gram- 
mar should be reenforced by constant reference to corresponding 
constructions. Every Latin word that has a derivative in the 
English should furnish a suggestion for interesting examination 
and discussion. 

The regular, and more common irregular forms of noun and 
adjective declensions, conjugations of verbs, and comparison of 
adjectives and adverbs, should be carefully learned, together with 
the ordinary applications of the common rules of syntax. It is 
not necessary to call attention to details. The year requires a 
systematic and complete study of the fundamental and simple 
applications of all the ordinary rules of Latin syntax. No time 
should be spent on such applications of syntax as are not used in 
the Latin that is to be read during the second year. 



LATIN 33 

Regular exercises in Latin composition should be used for the 
purpose of more clearly fixing the points suggested above. In 
these exercises the sentences should be short and free from all 
unnecessary difficulties and complexities. To develop the student's 
power to apply his knowledge of forms and vocabulary he should 
be encouraged from the first to translate simple sentences at sight 
and later in the year, easy selections of connected discourse. 

The work of this year is far more important than that of any 
later year, and on its thoroughness depends the future success of 
the student. It is the year for acquiring a working vocabulary, a 
complete mastery of ordinary forms and the simpler principles of 
Latin syntax. 

Second year: Caesar's Gallic War. The second year is a very 
critical period in the study of Latin, inasmuch as it is in this year 
that the student will show whether or not he has acquired the power 
during the first year to enable him to take up the reading of a Latin 
author. All the first year's work, in the matter of forms and 
applications of rules of syntax, should be carefully reviewed, and 
the subject-matter amplified as the demands of the author shall 
show the need. The general principles of indirect discourse should 
be sufficiently mastered to warrant the intelligent reading of the 
author prescribed for the year. It is not expected that the more 
complicated constructions under this head should be mastered, as 
this would involve too great difficulties for the time allowed. A 
complete review of the subject should be postponed to the year 
following. A fractional part of each recitation period should be 
given to oral and written exercises wherein sentences of gradually 
increasing length and complexity shall be translated from English 
into Latin. 

Students should have constant practice in translating at sight 
easy portions of advanced lessons, and other selections from 
the author not involving too great difficulties, the teacher supply- 
ing the meaning of unusual words. 

Only so much history and geography should be taught as will 
make an intelligent setting for the matter read. At the completion 
of this year's work the pupils will be expected to show the examina- 
tion a thorough knowledge of forms, regular and irregular, a knowl- 
edge of the idioms as far as used in the author read, a power to trans- 
late at sight simple passages involving the usual vocabulary and 
forms, and the ability also ^o translate simple English sentences 
into good Latin illustrating any of the forms or rules required for 
use in this year. The examination in Caesar and in elementary 



34 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Latin composition will be confined to the first four books of the 
Gallic War. 

Third year: Cicero's Orations. The third year of Latin should 
embrace a careful and thorough review of the work of previous 
years, and a completion of the etymologic and syntactic parts of 
the Latin grammar, as applied to simple prose constructions. 
Facility in translation must be attained, a fair working vocabulary 
acquired, and also a general historical and geographical knowledge 
of the times, places and peoples referred to in the writings of the 
author, together with the ability to write simple and connected 
Latin prose with a fair degree of ease and accuracy. The writing 
of Latin should be carried on throughout the year concurrently 
with the study of the text. The power to read at sight must be 
constantly tested, but care should be taken to avoid too difficult 
Latin in selecting passages for this purpose. 

It should be clearly borne in mind that the translation at sight 
of Latin selections must supplement and not take the place of the 
exact rendering of carefully prepared translations to which the 
larger energy and time of the student should be given. 

The subject-matter for examination in the third year will be 
Cicero's Catilinian Orations, together with the Manilian Law and 
the Poet Archias. 

At the end of this year the student should also be fully prepared 
to take the examination in Latin grammar. This will involve the 
forms and constructions used in the texts thus far studied. 

Fourth year: Virgil's Aeneid. The examination for the fourth 
year will be on the first six books of Virgil's Aeneid. In connec- 
tion with the translation, enough attention should be given to 
prosody to enable the pupil clearly to understand the structure and 
quantities of the dactylic hexameter. Such knowledge of myth- 
ology, geography, general history and philosophy as is needed to 
give a fair comprehension of the poem read will be required. 

Exercises in Latin composition which should be continued 
throughout the year, should be based entirely on Cicero's orations. 
This work is to be done more for the purpose of reviewing the con- 
structions of Latin prose than to assist in the reading of Virgil. 

During the year choice expressions and thoughts of the author 
should be memorized to the extent of at least 50 lines, with careful 
attention to the meter of the text. At the end of the year students 
should be able to translate at sight with considerable freedom any 
selection of the author in which involved constructions or obscure 
references do not appear. 



GREEK 35 

GREEK 

In accordance with the general suggestions at the beginning of 
this syllabus, the attention of the pupil beginning Greek should be 
directed from the outset to the roots of words, to the more common 
prefixes and suffixes and to the endings of the inflections. For 
example, <£iAos, Ao'yos and xp° vo<; > three simple nouns of the 
second declension, afford ample opportunity for showing English 
derivation of Greek words. The forms of Greek proper names, 
when written in the Roman alphabet, and their proper English 
pronunciation, should receive careful attention. Neatness in 
writing Greek words, correct forms of the letters, and exactness in 
the placing of accents, are to be enforced. Good habits may be 
formed quite as easily as bad ones; no slovenly or vague work 
should be allowed at any time; the value of a right beginning can 
not be overestimated. 

First year. The examination on first year Greek will be ex- 
pected to test a thorough knowledge of forms in common use, and 
of the topics of grammar indicated in the following paragraphs: 

The sounds of the language and their graphic representation, the 
pronunciation of the vowels, particularly of o and v and of the 
diphthongs ei and ev, the classification of sounds, the real charac- 
ter of the aspirates and of the double consonants, the rules of 
euphony and the principles of accentuation must be thoroughly 
mastered. The student should know the inflection of all the main 
classes of nouns, adjectives and participles, but time should not be 
spent on rare forms. Further, the scope of the examination in- 
cludes the comparison of adjectives and the formation of adverbs. 
The reflexive and correlative forms of the pronoun should receive 
careful attention in regard both to form and use. The student 
must be able to form from the verb stem or from any inflected form 
given him the principal tense stem, and to inflect the tenses through- 
out the various modes. The present, the aorist and the future in all 
voices, and the perfect in the middle and the passive, are the most 
important forms. The analysis of Greek words should be made a 
constant exercise. By so doing much time is saved which would 
otherwise be spent in hunting up words of like origin in the diction- 
aries. The grouping of words with a common base or a common 
sufhx should be practised, and yet work of this character should be 
introduced gradually as the various categories are reached, and 
should not be crowded into one or more lessons by itself. The 
student should know the formal use of the cases, of the modes in 



$6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

simple sentences, of conditions, and of relative clauses and con- 
ditions in indirect discourse. Of importance further on are the 
uses of pronouns, particularly of the relative pronouns, also the use 
of the main conjunctions tra, fxrj, ware, n-iv, Se, d and idv, and of the 
modal adverb av. The student will be expected to translate 
into English an easy selection, and to form short sentences in Greek. 
The passages for translation may involve a knowledge of the vari- 
ous subjects enumerated in the preceding paragraphs. 

Second year: Xenophon's Anabasis. Four books of Xenophon's 
Anabasis are required for this examination. The candidate will be 
expected to translate any passages selected into good English which 
shall at the same time indicate as closely as possible the construc- 
tion of the original. He should be thoroughly familiar with the 
regular inflections, and be able to state clearly and to apply the 
most important rules of syntax. Thorough training in the laws of 
indirect discourse is strongly advised, and, as a preliminary to this 
care must be taken that the ordinary uses of the modes and their 
time relation are fully understood. Constant attention to the Eng- 
lish derivatives is also recommended as adding to the interest of the 
study of Greek. The student should be able to give the meaning 
of each constituent of compound words and the effect of each on the 
significance of the compound. The examination will include ques- 
tions on the subject-matter of the text, involving a general knowl- 
edge of the geography and history of the countries traversed by 
the expedition. The student will also be expected to have learned, 
through supplementary reading, histories or other works, the main 
facts of the narrative as a whole. Preparation for examination in 
Greek prose composition can be made only by careful, systematic 
drill in the translation of English into Greek. This should be car- 
ried on concurrently with the reading of the Anabasis. Principles 
of syntax illustrated in the author read should be applied in com- 
position based on the text. The examination in elementary com- 
position will be based on the vocabulary found in the first and 
second books of the Anabasis and rare words, if called for, will be 
given in the examination paper. All Greek words are to be dis- 
tinctly written and correctly accented. 

Third year : Homer's Iliad. The examination will be on the first 
three books of Homer's Iliad, excepting the catalogue of the ships 
in the second book. Smoothness in translation without sacrifice 
of accuracy, and familiarity with Homeric syntax, will be expected. 
The student should have a thorough acquaintance with the rules 
of prosody and their exceptions, and the laws of hexameter verse. 



GREEK 37 

The scansion of exceptional as well as regular verses from the text 
will be required. In oral practice the attention of the student 
should be carefully directed to the real meaning of quantity as made 
manifest by the musical symbols now found in all grammars. 
Homer's verses should not be baldly anglicized; and if the ear is 
first trained, the true rhythm is easily caught. A knowledge of 
epic forms sufficient to give certainty in recognizing the main types 
will be necessary, but the work in Homer is not expected to be 
primarily grammatical. It is of very great importance that there 
should be at least a general acquaintance with the whole story of 
the Iliad, through supplementary reading, sight reading or lec- 
tures, and special familiarity with those scenes and passages which 
are recognized everywhere as masterpieces of the world's literature. 
Prose composition should be continued throughout this year to 
the extent of one period a week. The aim of the work in general 
should be the review of Attic forms and constructions and the per- 
fecting of the student's ability to articulate simple clauses in con- 
nected discourse. The examination will consist of the translation 
into Greek of continuous prose, employing the vocabulary and 
idioms of the first four books of Xenophon's Anabasis. 



GROUP i (concluded) 
MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES 
German French Spanish 

Three grades of instruction in the modern foreign languages, 
elementary, intermediate and advanced, have been adopted in 
accordance with the recommendations of the Modern Foreign 
Language Association of America, the three grades corresponding 
normally to courses of two, three and four years respectively. 
The examination questions issued by the State Education Depart- 
ment will accord with this classification with the single exception 
that first year test papers may be provided for students intending 
to leave school or to discontinue the subject at the end of one 
year's work. 

The two suggestive paragraphs preceding the lists of texts and 
relating to the aims of the instruction and the work to be done, 
have been quoted from the Report of the Committee of Twelve 
[D. C. Heath & Co. Boston, 16c]. This report discusses at length 
the value of the modern foreign languages in secondary education, 
the qualifications and training of teachers and the several methods 
of instruction, and should be in the hands of every teacher of 
modern languages. 

The lists of suggested texts in German and French are in exact 
conformity with the recommendations of the committee on modern 
languages appointed by the Associated Academic Principals of the 
State of New York, and are inclusive of the texts proposed by the 
committee of twelve. The differences between the two lists are 
indicated as follows: 

1 Not found in the list of texts recommended by the committee 

of twelve. 

2 Placed in the intermediate list by the committee of twelve. 

3 Placed in the elementary list by the committee of twelve. 
* Placed in the advanced list by the committee of twelve. 

GERMAN 

i Elementary requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the elementary course in German the pupil should 
be able to read at sight, and to translate, if called upon, by way of 
proving his ability to read, a passage of very easy dialogue or nar- 
rative prose, help being given upon unusual words and construc- 

38 



GERMAN 39 

tions; to put into German short English sentences taken from the 
language of everyday life or based upon the text given for transla- 
tion, and to answer questions upon the rudiments of grammar, as 
defined below. 

Work to be done 

During the first year the work should comprise: (i) careful drill 
upon pronunciation; (2) the memorizing and frequent repeti- 
tion of easy colloquial sentences; (3) drill upon the rudiments of 
grammar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns 
as belong to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, 
weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs; also upon the use of 
the more common prepositions, the simpler uses of the modal 
auxiliaries, and the elementary rules of syntax and word order; 
(4) abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the 
forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in 
the reproduction of natural forms of expression; (5) the reading 
of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader, with 
constant practice in translating into German easy variations upon 
sentences selected from the reading lesson (the teacher giving the 
English), and in the reproduction from memory of sentences pre- 
viously read. 

During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the read- 
ing of from 150 to 200 pages of literature in the form of easy stories 
and plays; (2) accompanying practice, as before, in the transla- 
tion into German of easy variations upon the matter read, and also 
in the offhand reproduction, sometimes orally and sometimes in 
writing, of the substance of short and easy selected passages ; 
(3) continued drill upon the rudiments of the grammar, directed 
to the ends of enabling the pupil, first, to use his knowledge with 
facility in the formation of sentences, and, secondly, to state his 
knowledge correctly in the technical language of grammar. 

Stories suitable for the elementary course can be selected from 
the following list: 

Andersen. Bilderbuch ohne Bilder 

Arnold. Ein Regentag auf dem Lande,^ Fritz auf Ferien 

Baumbach 1 . Im Zwielicht, Waldnovellen 

Baumbach & Wildenbruch 1 . Es War Einmal 

Benedix. Der Prozess, Der Weiberfeind, Eigensinn, 1 Giinstige 
Vorzeichen 

Ebner-Eschenbach 1 . Krambambuli 

Eichendorff 1 . Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts 

a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 



40 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Elz. Er ist nicht eifersuchtig 

Gerstacker. Germelshausen, Irrfahrten 20 

Grimm 1 . Kinder-und Hausmarchen 

Heyse. Anfang und Ende, Das Madchen von Treppi, L'Arrabbiata 

Hillern. Hoher als die Kirche 

Leander. Kleine Geschichten, Traumereien 

Meissner 1 . Aus meiner Welt 

Meyer 1 . Das Amulett 

Riehl 1 . Die vierzehn Nothelfer 

Schanz 1 . Der Assistent 

Seidel 1 . Der Lindenbaum, Die Monate, Herr Omnia 

Stifter 1 . Das Haidedorf 

Stokl. Unter dem Christbaum 

Storm. Geschichten aus der Tonne 

Wichert. An der Majorsecke 

Wildenbruch. Das edle Blut 2 

Zschokke. Der zerbrochene Krug 

2 Intermediate requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able 
to read at sight German prose of ordinary difficulty, whether recent 
or classical; to put into German a connected passage of simple 
English, paraphrased from a given text in German; to answer any 
grammatical questions relating to usual forms and essential prin- 
ciples of the language, including syntax and word formation, and 
to translate and explain (so far as explanation may be necessary) 
a passage of classical literature taken from some text previously 
studied. 

Work to be done 

The work should comprise, in addition to the elementary course, 
the reading of about 400 pages of moderately difficult prose and 
poetry, with constant practice in giving, sometimes orally and 
sometimes in writing, paraphrases, abstracts, or reproductions from 
memory of selected portions of the matter read; also grammatical 
drill upon the less usual strong verbs, the use of articles, cases, 
auxiliaries of all kinds, tenses and modes (with special reference 
to the infinitive and subjunctive), and likewise upon word order 
and word formation. 

The intermediate course is supposed to be the elementary course, 
plus one year's work at the rate of not less than four recitations 
a week. Suitable reading matter for the third year can be selected 
from such works as the following: 

a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 



GERMAN 41 

Baumbach. Der Schwiegersohn,' Die Norma 3 

Chamisso al . Peter Schlemihl 

Ebner-Escheribach. Die Freiherren von Gemperlein 

Fouque\ Undine 

Freytag. Die Journalisten 

Goethe. Hermann und Dorothea 

Groller 1 . Inkognito 

Hauff 1 . Das kalte Herz, Die Karawane 

Heine. Gedichte 

Heyse. Kolberg 

Hoffmann. Historische Erzahlungen 

Jensen. Die braune Erica 3 

Lessing. Minna von Barnhelm 

Meyer. Gustav Adolfs Page 

Riehl. Burg Neideck, Das Spielmannskind, Der Fluch der 
Schonheit, Der stumme Ratsherr 

Rosegger. Waldheimat 

Schiller. Der Neffe als Onkel, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Wilhelm 
Tell 

Uhland. Gedichte 

Wildenbruch 1 . Der Letzte 

3 Advanced requirement 
Aim of the instruction 

At the end of the advanced course the student should be able to 
read, after brief inspection, any German literature of the last 150 
years that is free from any unusual textual difficulties ; to put into 
German a passage of simple English prose; to answer in German 
questions relating to the lives and works of great writers studied, 
and to write in German a short, independent theme upon some 

assigned topic. 

Work to be done 

The work of the advanced course (last year) should comprise 
the reading of about 500 pages of good literature in prose and 
poetry, reference readings upon the lives and works of the great 
writers studied, the writing in German of numerous short themes 
upon assigned subjects, independent translation of English into 
German. Suitable reading matter for the last year will be: 

Freytag. Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit 2 , such as Aus 
dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen, Aus den Kreuzziigen, Karl der 
Grosse; Soil und Haben 

Fulda. Der Talisman 

a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 



42 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Goethe. Balladen (selections), Egmont, Goetz von Berlichingen, 
Sesenheim 

Grillparzer. Der Traum, ein Leben 

Hauff. Lichenstein 

Heine. Balladen (selections), Reisebilder 23 (selections) 

Kleist. Prinz von Homburg 

Korner. Zriny 

Lessing. Emilia Galotti, Nathan der Weise 1 

Moser. Der Bibliothekar 2 

Ranke 1 . Kaiserwahl Karls V 

Scheffel. Der Trompeter von Sakkingen 2 , Ekkehard 

Schiller. Balladen (selections) 2 , Das Lied von der Glocke', 
Gustav Adolf in Deutschland 1 , Maria Stuart, Wallenstein 

Sudermann. Johannes 

Sybel 1 . Die Erhebung Europas 

Wagner 1 . Die Meistersinger 

Wilbrandt'. Der Meister von Palmyra 

Besides these texts there are excellent books like the following 
representing the so called "Realien" that offer very profitable 
reading : 

Stern 1 . Geschichten vom Rhein (2d year), Geschichten von 
deutschen Stadten (3d year) 

Prehn 1 . Journalistic German (3d year) 

Lodeman 1 . Germany and the Germans (3d year) 

Kron 1 . German Daily Life (2d year) 

There may be others of this class, but these are the only ones 
that have come to our notice. 

FRENCH 

i Elementary requirement 

Aim of ike instruction 

At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to 
pronounce French accurately, to read at sight easy French prose, 
to put into French simple English sentences taken from the language 
of everyday life, or based upon a portion of the French text read, 
and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar as 
defined below. 

Work to be done 

During the first year the work should comprise: (1) careful drill 
in pronunciation; (2) the rudiments of grammar, including the 
inflection of the regular and the more common irregular verbs, 

a For explanation of superior figures see p, 38. 



FRENCH 43 

the plural of nouns, the inflection of adjectives, participles, and 
pronouns; the use of personal pronouns, common adverbs, prepo- 
sitions, and conjunctions; the order of words in the sentence, and 
the elementary rules of syntax; (3) abundant easy exercises, 
designed not only to fix in the memory the forms and principles of 
grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of 
natural forms of expression; (4) the reading of from 100 to 175 
duodecimo pages of graduated texts, with constant practice in 
translating into French easy variations of the sentences read (the 
teacher giving the English), and in reproducing from memory 
sentences previously read; (5) writing French from dictation. 

During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the read- 
ing of from 250 to 400 pages of easy modern prose in the form of 
stories, plays, or historical or biographical sketches; (2) constant 
practice, as in the previous year, in translating into French easy 
variations upon the texts read; (3) frequent abstracts, sometimes 
oral and sometimes written, of portions of the text already read; 
(4) writing French from dictation; (5) continued drill upon the 
rudiments of grammar, with constant application in the construc- 
tion of sentences; (6) mastery of the forms and use of pronoun, 
pronominal adjectives, of all but the rare irregular verb forms, 
and of the simpler uses of the conditional and subjunctive. 

Suitable texts for the second year are: 

About. Short stories ^ 

Bruno. Le tour de la France ; 

Chateaubriand 1 . Les aventures du dernier Abencerage 

Daudet. His easier short stories 

Dumas 1 . Excursions sur les bords du Rhin 

Erckmann. Chatrian's stories 

Foa. Contes Biographiques, Le petit Robinson de Paris 

Foncin. Le pays de France 

Halevy 1 . L'Abbe Constantin 

La Bedollidrre. La mere Michel et son chat 

Labiche & Martin. La Poudre aux yeux, Le voyage de M. Per- 
richon 

Legouve - & Labiche. La cigale chez les fourmis 

Mairet. La clef d'or 1 , L'Enfant de la lune 1 , La tache du petit 
Pierre 

Meilhac & Halevy 1 . L'6te de la St Martin 

Malot. Sans famille 

Merimee. Colomba 

a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 



44 N EW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Nodier 1 . Le chien de Brisquet 
Sand 1 . La mare au diable 
Schultz 1 . La Neuvaine de Colette 
Verne. Selected stories 

2 Intermediate requirement 

Aim of the instruction 

At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to 
read at sight ordinary French prose or simple poetry, to translate 
into French a connected passage of English based on the text read, 
and to answer questions involving a more thorough knowledge of 
syntax than is expected in the elementary course. 

Work to be done 

This should comprise the reading of from 400 to 600 pages of 
French of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic form; 
constant practice in giving French paraphrases, abstracts or repro- 
ductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read ; the 
study of a grammar of moderate completeness ; writing from dicta- 
tion. 

Suitable texts are: 

About. La mere de la marquise 1 " , Le roi des montagnes 3 

Augier & Sandeau. Le gendre de M. Poirier 

Beranger. Selected poems 

Coppde. Selected poems 

Daudet. La Belle-Nivernaise, Tartarin de Tarascon 1 

Dumas 4 . La tulipe noire, Les trois mousquetaires, Monte Cristo 

Hugo. Hernani, La chute 

Labiche & Delacour. La Cagnotte 

La Brete. Mon oncle et mon cure" 

La Fontaine. Fables 4 

Loti. Pecheur d'islande 

Michelet. Extracts 3 

Moliere. L'avare, Le bourgeois gentilhomme 

Racine. Athalie, Esther 

Sand. La petite Fadette 

Sandeau. Mademoiselle de la Seigliere 

Sarcey. Le siege de Paris 3 

Scribe's plays 

Sevigne\ Selected letters 

Thiers. L' expedition de Bonaparte en Egypte 

Vigny. La canne de jonc 

a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 



SPANISH 45 

3 Advanced requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the advanced course the pupil should be able to 
read at sight, with the help of a vocabulary of special or technical 
expressions, difficult French not earlier than that of the 17th cen- 
tury; to write in French a short essay on some simple subject con- 
nected with the works read; to put into French a passage of easy 
English prose and to carry on a simple conversation in French. 

Work to be done 

This should comprise the reading of from 600 to 1000 pages of 
standard French, classical and modern, only difficult passages being 
explained in the class; the writing of numerous short themes in 
French ; the study of syntax. 

Suitable reading matter will be : 

Beaumarchais. Le barbier de SeVille 

Corneille. Cinna, Horace 20 , Le Cid 2 , Polyeucte 

Dumas. La question d'argent 

Lamartine. Graziella 

Marivaux. Plays 

Moliere. Le misanthrope, Les femmes savantes, Les pre'cieuses 
ridicules 

Musset. Selected plays and poems 

Pellissier. Mouvement litteraire au XIX e siecle 

Racine. Andromaque 2 , Iphige'nie 1 

Renan. Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse 

Rousseau. Selected readings 

Sainte-Beuve. Selected readings 

Taine. Les origines de la France contemporaine 

Voltaire. Selections from historical works* 

Balzac, De Goncourt 1 , Maupassant, Zola. Selections 

SPANISH 

The requirements in Spanish are in substantial accord with the 
recommendations made for French and German by the committee 
of twelve of the Modern Language Association. 

1 Elementary requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to 
pronounce Spanish accurately, to read at sight easy Spanish prose, 
to put into Spanish simple English sentences taken from the lan- 

a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 



4-6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

guage of everyday life, or based upon a portion of the Spanish text 
read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar, as 
defined below. 

Work to be done 

During the first year the work should comprise (i) careful drill in 
pronunciation ; (2) the rudiments of grammar, including the conju- 
gation of the regular and the more common irregular verbs, the in- 
flection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, and the elementary 
rules of syntax; (3) exercises containing illustrations of the prin- 
ciples of grammar ; (4) the reading and accurate rendering into good 
English of from 100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, 
with translation into Spanish of easy variations of the sentences 
read; (5) writing Spanish from dictation. 

During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the read- 
ing of from 250 to 400 pages of modern prose from different authors ; 
(2) practice in translating Spanish into English, and English varia- 
tions of the text into Spanish; (3) continued study of the elements 
of grammar and syntax; (4) mastery of all but the rare irregular 
verb forms and of the simpler uses of the modes and tenses; (5) 
writing Spanish from dictation; (6) memorizing of easy short 
poems. 

Suitable texts for the second year are: 

Alarc6n. El nino de la bola, El capitan Veneno, El final de Norma 

Carridn & Aza. Zaragiieta 

Fernan Caballero. La familia de Alvareda 

Gald6s. Dofia Perfecta, Marianela, El amigo manso, La corte de 
Carlos IV, Electra 

Padre Isla. Version of Gil Bias 

Valdes. Jose - 

Valera. El pajaro verde, Pepita Jimenez, De varios colores, El 
comendador Mendoza 

2 Intermediate requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to 
read at sight ordinary Spanish prose or simple poetry; to translate 
into Spanish a connected passage of English based on the text 
read, and to answer questions involving a more thorough knowledge 
of syntax than is expected in the elementary course. 

Work to be done 
This should comprise the reading of about 500 pages of 
Spanish of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic 



SPANISH 47 

form; constant practice in giving Spanish paraphrases, abstracts 
or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter 
read; writing from dictation; grammatical drill on all irregular 
verb forms that are likely to be met with in ordinary prose and 
poetry; the science of vowel change due to accent; word forma- 
tion with special stress on the use of qualifying suffixes; the uses 
of modes and tenses; syntax of more advanced grade; the writing 
of business forms and commercial correspondence. 

Suitable texts are: 

Ayala. El tanto por ciento 

Cervantes. Don Quijote, books 1-12 and 39-41 (El cautivo) 

Herreros. Me voy de Madrid, Independencia, <jQuien es ella? 

Larra. Partir d tiempo 

Nunez de Arce. El haz de Lena, Poemas 

Pereda. Pedro Sanchez, Sotileza 

Valera. Estudios criticos 

Zorrilla. Granada 



GROUP 2 

MATHEMATICS 

i Advanced arithmetic 4 Plane geometry 

2 Elementary algebra 5 Solid geometry 

3 Intermediate algebra 6 Trigonometry 

7 Advanced algebra 

In September 1902 the American Mathematical Society appointed 
a special committee to prepare standard formulations of college 
entrance requirements in mathematics in cooperation with com- 
mittees already appointed by the Society for the Promotion of 
Engineering Education and by the National Educational Associa- 
tion. During the two succeeding years the committee devoted a 
great amount of time and energy to the work assigned them. After 
taking due account of previous work along similar lines and of 
existing conditions in the mathematical instruction of colleges and 
secondary schools, and after consulting the several interests con- 
cerned, they prepared a report which has been approved by various 
associations of teachers of mathematics and boards of examiners. 
This report has received the unqualified indorsement of a com- 
mittee representing the Associated Academic Principals of the 
State of New York and accordingly has been adopted by the 
Education Department. To this report, however, some detailed 
suggestions in algebra and trigonometry have been added and 
likewise a syllabus for a course of study in advanced arithmetic. 

The order in which the subjects and the topics under them are 
presented does not necessarily imply any preference as to the order 
of teaching either the subjects or the topics. 

ADVANCED ARITHMETIC 

This subject should be taken after the student has completed the 
courses in algebra and plane geometry. Special attention should 
be given to the theory of arithmetical processes, to clearness of 
analysis, and to facility and accuracy of computation. The 
following outline will indicate the scope of the examination. 

1 The fundamental operations with integers and fractions 
(common and decimal). This involves the following: full 
explanation of the theory of the different operations; abridged 
processes in common use; devices for proving the correctness of 
operations, e.g. "the casting out of nines"; multiples of and 



ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 49 

divisibility of numbers ; factoring ; least common multiple ; greatest 
common divisor, including proof by division; square root; cube 
root. 

2 Tables and their use. This involves: the money tables of the 
United States, Great Britain, Germany and France; the tables of 
weights and measures in common use (troy and apothecary's tables 
excluded) ; the metric system ; reduction of denominate numbers ; 
longitude and time. 

3 Percentage. Under this are involved the principles and 
problems of simple and compound interest; discount (bank and 
trade); present worth; stocks and bonds; taxes, duties and 
customs; commission and brokerage; partial payments computed 
by the United States rule; investments showing loss or gain. 

Intricate problems in compound interest, true discount, average 
of accounts, alligation, duodecimals and partnership involving 
time will not be included in the examinations. 

4 Ratio and proportion. The principles of ratio and propor- 
tion with their applications should be thoroughly taught, but 
involved problems in compound proportion will not be a part of 
the examinations. 

5 Mensuration. This should cover mensuration of the tri- 
angle, parallelogram, trapezoid, regular polygons, the circle, prism, 
cylinder, sphere, pyramids and their frustums, cones and their 
frustums; the applications of the principles of mensuration to 
measurement of the areas of fields, to cubic contents of tanks, 
bins, embankments etc. 

6 Series. Arithmetical and geometric with their applications. 



ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 

The four fundamental operations for rational algebraic expressions. 

Thorough treatment of these operations requires: 

i The ability to formulate necessary definitions in clear, 

concise language. 
2 The ability to represent quantities and to indicate mathe- 
matical relations and operations by means of algebraic 
symbols, and to translate symbolic expressions into words, 
including 

a The algebraic representation of (i) even numbers, (2) odd 
numbers, (3) numbers in decimal notation, (4) common 
fractions. 



50 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Removing symbols of aggregation from given expressions, 
and inserting specified terms of a polynomial within such 
symbols with facility and accuracy. 
Examples free from ingenious repetition of complications 
should be selected for practice. 

3 The ability to add or subtract monomials or polynomials 
having either numerical or literal coefficients and exponents, 
with special attention to like terms having polynomial 
literal coefficients; e.g. (a-\-b)x and (2b + c)x etc. 

4 Ability to find the product of monomials or polynomials 
having either numerical or literal coefficients and exponents, 
and to write by inspection the expanded forms of particular 

. cases of (ax + b) 2 ; (a + b + c) 2 ; (ax + b) (ax-b); (x + a) (x + b) 
and (ax + b) (ex + d) . 

5 Ability to find the quotient of (a) a monomial divided by 
a monomial, (b) a polynomial divided by a monomial or a 
polynomial, the coefficients and exponents in both cases 
oeing either numerical or literal, (c) a n ±b n divided by a ±b. 

Factoring. 

Facility in factoring involves: 

i The recognition of a monomial factor whenever present. 
2 Familiarity with the factors of: 

a Binomial, under the general form x n +y n . 

b Trinomial forms (i) a 2n ±2a n b n + b 2n ; (2) ax 2 + bx + c; 

(3) a m + a 2n b 2n + b m . ■ 
c Polynomial forms (1) ax + bx + ay + by; (2) simple poly- 
nomials of the third or fourth degree. 
Application of the principles of factoring in finding the highest 
common factor and the lowest common multiple. 
A clear form of presentation of written work is of vital im- 
portance here. Emphasis should be laid upon obtaining 
prime literal factors of each given expression as a preliminary 
step. Attention should be drawn to the H.C.F. and L.C.M. 
of expressions containing factors differing only in sign; 
e.g. i—x 2 and x 2 -i. 
Fractions, including complex fractions. 

1 Reduction by factoring. 

2 Multiplication and division of fractions. 

3 Addition and subtraction with the manipulation of signs 
necessary to obtain the lowest common denominator. 

4 Changing a given fraction to a mixed expression; a mixed 
expression to a fraction. 

5 Complex fractions. 



ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 5 1 

Ratio. 

i Necessary definitions. 

2 A ratio of greater inequality is diminished and a ratio of less 
inequality is increased by adding the same quantity to both 
its terms. 

3 In a series of equal ratios, the sum of all the antecedents is to 
the sum of all the consequents as any antecedent is to its 
consequent. 

Proportion. 

i Necessary definitions. 

2 If four quantities are in proportion, the product of the extremes 
is equal to the product of the means and conversely. 

3 Transformations that may be made in a proportion by inversion , 
alternation, composition and division. 

Solutions of examples under this heading are practically 
worthless if written down without explanation. 

Simple equations both numerical and literal containing one or more 
unknown quantities. 

The usual work under this heading should be supplemented by: 
i The solution for any letter in the simpler formulas of physics 

in terms of the others. 
2 Problems depending on simple equations. 
See remark under "Problems depending upon quadratic 

equations." 

Radicals. 

i Necessary definitions. 

2 Reduction (a) to simplest form; (b) to same order; (c) to 
entire-surd. 

3 Convention with respect to taking only positive sign. 

4 Four fundamental operations for surds. 

5 Rationalization of the denominator of a fraction when it is. 
a monomial surd of any order. 

6 Rationalization of the denominator of a fraction when it is a 
binomial quadratic surd. 

7 Square root of polynomial algebraic expressions. 

8 Square root of numbers expressed arithmetically. 

9 Radical equations. 

Quadratic equations both numerical and literal. 

i Solution of the pure quadratic. 

2 Solution of the affected quadratic, by (i) completing the 
square, (2) by factoring. 



52 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Equations of quadratic form involving one unknown quan- 
tity. 

4 Radical equations resulting in quadratics. 

Simple cases of equations with two or more unknown quantities 
that can be solved by the methods of simple or quadratic 
equations. 

i One simple equation, one of second degree. 

2 Two homogeneous equations of the second degree. 

3 Symmetric equations of the third or fourth degree readily 
solvable by dividing the variable member of one by the 
variable member of the other; e.g. % J ry=$, x 3 + y 3 =^$. 

Good training at this point of a student's work should lead him 
to consider the possibility of some combination of the given 
equations resulting in simpler forms before employing a 
general routine method for the special case before him. 
Values obtained for the variables should be properly associ- 
ated in presenting written answers. 

Problems involving quadratic equations. 

It is assumed that students will be required throughout the 
course to solve numerous problems which involve putting 
questions into equations. Some of these problems should 
be chosen from mensuration, from physics, and from com- 
mercial transactions. 

Binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. 

i Proof by induction. 

2 The nth term of a binomial expansion. 

* INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA 

This will include a thorough review of the elementary algebra 
together with the following additional topics: 

Interpretation of the forms — , — ' — . 

Imaginaries. 

Four fundamental operations for imaginary (not complex) 
numbers. 

Exponents. 

i Pro'ofs^of (a) a m .az=a m+ Q, m and q positive integers. 

(b) a m — a q = a m - q , m and q positive integers. 

(c) (a m )s =o' w 3, m and q positive integers. 



INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA 53 

2 Meaning of negative integral exponent. 

3 Meaning of the fractional exponent. 

4 Meaning of zero exponents. 

5 Involution and evolution of rational and surd monomials. 
Facility and accuracy in application of the principles of the 

theory of indices, may better be acquired in solving a large 
number of simple exercises than by struggling with compara- 
tively few but very involved examples. 

Evolution. 

i Square root of a binomial quadratic surd. 

2 Cube root of polynomials. 

3 Cube root of numbers. 

Quadratic equations. 

Theory of quadratic equations, (i) Two and only two roots. 
(2) Relations between roots and coefficients of terms. (3) 
Formation of an equation from two given roots. (4) Values 
of very simple expressions symmetric in the roots of a given 
quadratic. (5) Nature of the roots of a quadratic. 

Progressions, arithmetical and geometric. 

Arithmetical. 

1 Proof that with the usual notation Z=a+ (n-i)d. 

2 Proof that with the usual notation 

yi ft 

s=~(a + l)=- (2a+(n-i) d). 

Applications depending on these formulas. 
Geometric. 

1 Proof that with the usual notation h=ar n ~ 1 . 

ad — r n } 

2 Proof that with the usual notation s=— — . 

i-r 

3 Proof that with the usual notation 5= — for an infinite 

i-r 
series, r< 1. 

Applications depending on these formulas. 

Graphic interpretation of equations. 

1 Construction of the graphs of numerical equations, both simple 
and quadratic. 

2 Determination of the roots of simultaneous numerical equa- 
tions, both simple and quadratic, having two variables by 
the graphic method. 



54 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



PLANE GEOMETRY 

The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, includ- 
ing the general properties of plane rectilinear figures; the circle 
and the measurement of angles; similar polygons; areas; regular 
polygons and the measurement of the circle. 

The demonstration of original propositions and the solution of 
numerous problems, including loci problems. 

Applications of principles to the mensuration of lines and plane 
surfaces. 

SOLID GEOMETRY 

The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, includ- 
ing the relations of planes and lines in space; the properties and 
measurement of prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones; the sphere 
and the spherical triangle. 

The demonstration of original propositions and the solution of 
numerous problems, including loci problems. 

Applications of principles to the mensuration of surfaces and 
solids. 

TRIGONOMETRY 

Definitions and relations of the six trigonometric functions as 
ratios; circular measurement of angles. 

Thorough treatment of this topic should include 

i Consideration of the functions of complementary angles. 

2 Consideration of the functions of supplementary angles. 

3 Familiarity with the expression of the trigonometric func- 
tions as lines in order that the student may readily trace 
changes in sign and magnitude of a function as the angle 
varies, and extend the definitions of the trigonometric 
functions to angles of any magnitude. 

4 The derivation of the values of the six trigonometric func- 
tions for angles of 30 , 45 , 6o°. 

Proofs of principal formulas in particular for the sine, cosine and 
tangent of the sum and the difference of two angles, of the 
double angle and the half angle, the product expressions for 
the sum or difference of two sines or of two cosines, etc.; the 
transformation of trigonometric expressions by mean^of these 
formulas, 



ADVANCED ALGEBRA 55 

Solution of trigonometric equations of a simple character. 

Theory and use of logarithms (without the introduction of work 
involving infinite series), 
i Clear definitions. 

2 Proof that the logarithm of a product=sum of logarithms of 
its factors. 

3 Proof that the logarithm of a quotient=difference between the 
logarithm of the dividend and that of the divisor. 

4 Proof that the logarithm of a power of a number is found by 
multiplying the logarithm of the number by the exponent of 
the power. 

5 Ready use of tables of common logarithms ; facility in inter- 
polation and use of the cologarithm. Applications to finding 
the values of surd expressions and the functions of given 
angles, etc. 

6 Solution of simple exponential equations. 

The solution of right and oblique triangles, plane and spherical, 
and practical applications. 

i Derivation of formulas relative to right spherical triangles. 
2 Derivation of formulas used in solving the oblique plane 
triangle. 

ADVANCED ALGEBRA 

The course in advanced algebra should cover a thorough review 
of all of the topics in elementary algebra and intermediate algebra, 
with more difficult applications than can be expected in the earlier 
study of those courses, together with the following additional 
topics : 

Permutations and combinations limited to simple cases. 

i Necessary definitions and meaning of symbols in general use. 

2 Derivation of the formula for the permutations of n dissimilar 
things taken rata time. 

3 Derivation of the formula for the number of permutations of 
n things, taken all together, when p are of one kind, q of 
another, etc. 

4 Derivation of the formula for the number of combinations of 
n dissimilar things, r together. 

5 The number of combinations of n dissimilar things rata time 
is equal to the number of combinations of n dissimilar things 
n-r at a time. 



56 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

6 Investigation of the value of r which gives the greatest number 
of combinations of n things rata time. 

7 Exercises depending for solution upon any of the foregoing 
formulas or principles. 

Complex numbers with graphic representation of sums and differ- 
ences. 

1 Graphic representation of complex numbers and of their sums 
and differences. 

2 The four fundamental operations for complex numbers. 

Determinants, chiefly of the second, third and fourth orders 
including the use of minors and the solution of simple equations. 

1 Necessary definitions and meaning of the notation in general 
use. 

2 Fundamental principles of determinants. 

3 Expansion of determinants of the second, third and fourth 
orders by general methods. 

4 Determination of the sign of any particular term. 

5 Evaluation of determinants by special devices suitable to the 
case under consideration. 

6 The solution of simple simultaneous equations by the aid of 
determinants. 

Binomial theorem. 

1 The expansion of any binomial into a series, the exponent 
being positive or negative, integral or fractional. 

2 The finding of any root of a number approximately by the 
binomial theorem. 

Undetermined coefficients. 

1 Identical equations. 

2 Expansion of fractions into series. 

3 Expansion of surds into series. 

4 Decomposition of rational fractions. 

5 Reversion of series. 

Series. 

1 Convergency and divergency of infinite series. 

2 Method of differences. 

3 Summation of recurring series of the first, second and third 
orders. 

4 Interpolation. 

Logarithms. 

1 Meaning of terms used. 

2 Distinction between common and Napierian logarithms. 



ADVANCED ALGEBRA 57 

3 Use of logarithms in multiplication, division, involution and 
evolution. 

4 Application of logarithms to the solution of exponential equa- 
tions. 

Detached coefficients. 

Synthetic division for a binomial divisor, and the determination 
of the remainder. 

Theory of equations. 

i Divisibility of equations. 

2 Number of roots. 

3 Formation of an equation from given roots. 

4 Commensurable roots. 

5 Composition of coefficients. 

6 Fractional roots. 

7 Imaginary roots. 

8 Transformation 

a of an equation having fractional coefficients into another in 

which the coefficients are integral, that of the first term 

being unity; 
b of a complete equation into one in which the second term 

is wanting; 
c of an equation into another in which the roots shall be some 

multiple of the roots of the first or shall differ from those 

of the first by a given quantity. 

8 Descartes's rule of signs. 

9 Derived polynomials, 
io Multiple roots. 

Solution of higher numerical equations. 

i Horner's method of approximation to the roots of a numerical 

equation. 
2 Graphs of equations and graphic representations of roots. 



GROUP 3 

SCIENCE 

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 1 

Physics Chemistry 

PHYSICS 

Topical syllabus in physics 

The course of instruction in physics should include : 
i Individual laboratory work consisting of experiments requiring 
approximately 36 double periods. Each student should perform 
at least 35 experiments not very different from such as may be 
selected from the appended list. 

2 Instruction by lecture table demonstrations to be used mainly 
as a basis for questioning upon the general principles of physics and 
their applications. 

3 The study of at least one standard textbook to the end that the 
student may gain a comprehensive and connected view of the more 
important facts and laws of elementary physics. 

Throughout the course especial attention should be paid to the 
common illustrations of physical laws and to their industrial applica- 
tions. 

Whenever the solution of numerical problems is required, the 
. student should be encouraged to make use of the principles of 
algebra and geometry to reduce the difficulty of solution. 
I Introduction. 
A Metric system. 

Linear measure, units: meter, centimeter, millimeter. 
Square measure: centimeter only. 
Cubic measure : cubic centimeter and liter. 
Mass: kilogram, gram and decimal parts. 
Ratios: 2.54, 39.37, 2.2. 
B Definitions: volume, mass, weight, density. 
C Masses of equal volumes are directly proportional to density. 

Volumes of equal masses are inversely proportional to density 
D States of matter. 
Defined and explained. 
(Kinetic theory of matter.) 
E Properties of matter: 

1 Tenacity. 

2 Surface tension. 

3 Capillarity. 

1 In the preparation of the syllabuses in physics and chemistry valuable assistance has been 
rendered by teachers representing the New York State Science Teachers Association and the 
High School Teachers Association of New York city. 

58 



physics 59 

II Hydrostatics. 

A Pascal's law. 

Problems on hydrostatic press, areas given, lever omitted. 
B Gravity pressure. 
Varying depth. 
" area. 

" density of liquids. 
" direction. 
" shape of vessel. 
Communicating vessels. 
Problems limited to rectangular areas. 
C Laws of buoyancy, 
i Archimedes principle. 

2 Laws of flotation. 

3 Problems. 

D Specific gravity, 
i Definition. 

2 Methods are applications of principles stated in I C above. 

3 Specific gravity of solids. 

a Bodies heavier than water (weighing in air and in water) ". 
b Bodies lighter than water (sinker method only). 
c Problems. 

4 Specific gravity of liquids. 
a Bottle method. 

b Bulb method. 

c By balancing columns. 

d Problems. 

III Pneumatics. 

Gas pressure is due to (i) gravity, (2) molecular motion. 
A Atmospheric pressure. 

1 Evidences of (qualitative). 

2 Measurement by barometer. 

B Pressure due to molecular motion. 

Boyle's law. 
C Applications. 

Pumps. 

Air pumps (mechanical only). 

Lifting pump. 

Force pump, air dome included. 

Siphon. 

IV Statics of solids. 

A General conditions of equilibrium. (Two kinds of motion, 
rotary and translatory, must be prevented.) 



6o NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

B Simplest case of equilibrium, two forces only. 

Definition of resultant and equilibrant. 
C Equilibrium of three parallel forces. Show the following facts: 

i Two forces in one direction, and one in the opposite direction. 

2 The opposing force is between the other two. 

3 The opposing force equals the sum of the other two. 

4 Any two of the forces are inversely proportional to their 
distances from the third force. 

5 Problems. 

D Moment of a force defined and explained. 

E Equilibrium of any number of parallel forces. 

Problems. 
F General law of gravitation. 

Weight: a special case, the earth being one of the two bodies 
attracting each other, 
i Causes of variation of weight. 

2 Weight of a body defined as the resultant of the gravitation 
of the parts of the body. 

3 Weight is proportional to mass. 
G Center of gravity. 

i Defined as the point of application of the force called weight. 

2 C. of G. determined. 

3 Problems. 

H States of equilibrium. 

Stable. 

Unstable. 

Neutral. 
/ Equilibrium of three concurrent forces. 

i Parallelogram. 

2 Resolution of forces (rectangular components only). 

3 Problems. 
V Kinetics. 

A Define force, motion, velocity. 
B Uniform motion. 

i Newton's first law: inertia. 

2 Problems. 
C Variable motion. 

i Define acceleration. 

2 Uniformly accelerated motion (if initial or final velocity is 
zero) . 

Problems. 

3 Falling bodies (A = G = 980 or 32) a special case. 



PHYSICS 6l 

D i Momentum defined. Rate of change of momentum. 

2 Newton's second law, "A force is measured by the change 

in momentum produced in unit time." F = M A or F T 
= M V. 

3 Unit force gives to a unit mass a unit acceleration. 

4 Weight of unit mass = 980 CGS units of force or 32 FPS 

units. 
E Newton's third law. To every action there is an equal and 

opposite reaction. 
F 1 Work defined, and formula, Work = FL . 

Problems. 

2 Energy defined. 

3 Units of work and of energy, erg and foot pound only, 

= Unit force acting through unit distance. 
G 1 Law of conservation of energy. 
2 Kinds of energy. 
a Potential energy defined and determined as equal to FL 

from law of conservation of energy. 
b Kinetic energy defined. 
Problems. 
H Power defined. 

Unit of power defined. 
Problems. 
/ Machines, mechanical advantage, (problems) , mechanical effi- 
ciency defined and discussed. (Use terms effort and resist- 
ance.) 
J Lever, wheel and axle. 

Problems. 
K Pulley. 

1 Single fixed. 

2 Single movable. 

3 Any number of pulleys with a continuous cord. 
Problems. 

L Inclined plane. (Effort parallel to incline.) 
Problems. 
M Curvilinear motion: centripetal force qualitatively illustrated. 
N Laws of simple pendulum. 

1 As to amplitude of vibration. 

2 As to weight of bob. 

3 As to length of pendulum. 
Problems. 



62 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

VI Heat. 

A Heat defined from standpoint of kinetic theory. 

B Temperature defined from standpoint of law of exchange. 

C Measurement of temperature. 

i Construction of mercury and glass thermometer explained. 

2 Graduation of a thermometer and location of fixed points. 

3 Reduction of C and F thermometer scales. 
Problems. 

4 Limitations of liquid thermometers. 

5 Metallic thermometers. 
a Compound bar. 

b Expansion of a wire. 

6 Air thermometer: simplest form. 
D Sources of heat. 

i Sun. 

2 Interior of earth. 

3 Chemical change. 

4 Friction. 

5 Impact. 

6 Compression. 

E Transmission or diffusion of heat. 
i Conduction. ^ 

2 Convection. > Defined and discussed. 

3 Radiation. J 
F Effects of heat. 

i Expansion. 
a Of solids. 

b Coefficient of linear expansion. Problems. 
c Expansion of liquids — anomalous expansion of water. 
d Expansion of gases. 
e Absolute zero. 
f Law of Charles. 
Problems. 

2 Change of state. 
a Fusion. 

b Vaporization, (i) Boiling. (2) Evaporation. 

3 Rise of temperature. 
a Calorie defined. 

b Law of exchange of heat. 
c Specific heat defined and determined. 
Problems. 



PHYSICS 63 

G 1 Heat of fusion denned and determined. 
Problems. 
2 Heat of vaporization defined and determined. 
Problems. 
H Heat and work. 

1 Joule's equivalent. 

2 Simple noncondensing steam engine. 

3 Gas engine. 
VII Sound. 

A Origin of sound. 

B Propagation of sound waves. 

1 Amplitude of wave and loudness. 

2 Length of wave and pitch. 

3 Form of wave and quality or timbre. 

4 Velocity of sound. 

C Reflection of sound, echoes. 

D Resonance. 

E Interference of sound, beats. 

F Harmony and discord. 

G Vibration of rods or bars free at one end (effect of length). 

H Vibration of strings (effect of length, tension, and mass per 
unit of length). 
• / Pitch of open and closed pipes. 
VIII Light. 

A Discussion of radiant energy. 

1 The ether. 

2 Transverse waves. 

3 Wave length. 

4 Light waves contrasted with heat waves as to : 
a Wave length. 

b Effects. 

5 Velocity of light. 
B Definitions: 

Light, luminous bodies, illuminated bodies, transparent, trans- 
lucent and opaque bodies. 
C Rectilinear propogation of light in a homogeneous medium- 

1 Shadows. 

2 Pinhole camera. 
D Photometry. 

1 Intensity of light (source) and intensity of illumination dis- 
tinguished. 

2 Law of inverse squares. 



64 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Bunsen photometer. 

4 Problems. 
E Reflection. 

1 Law of reflection. 

2 Regular. 

3 Irregular (visibility of illuminated objects). 

4 Plane mirrors, position and character of image. 
F Refraction. 

1 Definition. 

2 Explanation. 

3 Index of refraction. 

4 Laws of refraction. 

5 Total reflection. 

a Critical angle defined. 

6 Refraction by parallel sided plates. 

7 Refraction by prisms. 

8 Lenses: 

a Definition. 

b Classification. 

c Definitions of focus, conjugate focuses, principal focus, 
center of curvature, optical center, principal axis, second- 
ary axis. 

9 Position and character of images formed by converging and 
diverging lenses. 

10 Real and virtual images defined. 

ir Graphical determination of size "and position of images 
formed by lenses. 

Ill 

1 2 Problems. — = 1 

F D 6 Di 

13 So : Si :: D 6 : Df 

S = diameter. 
IX Magnetism and electricity. 
A Magnets, magnetic substance. 

B Magnets, natural and artificial; permanent and temporary. 
C Polarity. Laws of magnetic force: 

1 As to like and unlike poles. 

2 As to distance between poles. 
Problems. 

D Magnetic induction and molecular theory of magnetism. 
E Magnetic fields and lines of magnetic force defined and dis- 
cussed. 



PHYSICS 65 

F Terrestrial magnetism evidenced by: 

1 Magnetic compass. 

2 Magnetic declination. 

3 Dip- 

4 Magnetic induction of the earth. 
X Current electricity. 

A Action in simple cell: 

1 Chemical changes. 

2 Theory of the production of difference of potential. 

3 Local action and polarization. 
B Daniell cell. 

C Effects of current (qualitatively illustrated). 

1 Magnetic. 

a Electromagnet. 

b Relation between direction of current and direction of 
magnetic lines of force. 

2 Heating. 

a Fuse wire. 

b Electric heater. 

3 Chemical. 

a Electrolysis of water. 
b Electroplating. 
c Storage cell. 
D Electrical quantities and units. 

1 E.M.F.: volt. 

2 Current: ampere. 

3 Resistance: ohm. 

4 Power: watt and kilowatt-hour. 

E 
E Ohm's law: C= — 
R 
Problems. 
F Measuring instruments: galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, 

resistance coils (rheostat). 
G Grouping of cells. 

1 Series. 

2 Parallel. 

Problems. 

E 

H Determination of internal resistance of a cell bv C = 

R + r 
K L 

/ Laws of resistance of wires: R — 

Problems. D 2 



66 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

/ Joint resistance and current division in a divided circuit. 

Problems. 
K Fall of potential in a circuit. 

Problems. 
L Wheatstone's bridge. 

Problems. 
M Induced E.M.F. 

i How produced. 

2 Intensity. 

3 Direction. 

N Simple dynamo two pole field, single rotating loop, alternat- 
ing and direct. 
Simple electric motor, two pole, H armature. 
P Applications: 
i Arc lamp. 

2 Incandescent lamp. 

3 Telegraph. 

4 Telephone. 

5 Electric bell. 
XI Static electricity. 

A Electrification by friction; two kinds of electrification. 
B Law of attraction and repulsion ; gold leaf electroscope. 
C Conductors and insulators; electrification by induction. 
D Difference of electric potential of two points. 

Laboratory syllabus in physics 

Notebooks — general directions, i The purpose of each experi- 
ment should be clearly stated in a brief title. 

2 A brief description, usually accompanied by a drawing, should 
show how the experiment was done. Descriptions should be 
expressed in definite and complete sentences^ and drawings should 
show the essential parts of the apparatus at the most significant 
part of the experiment. Drawings should be made in the form of 
plain outline diagrams and should aim at simple accuracy rather 
than at artistic finish. 

3 Numerical data should always be recorded in neat tabulations. 

4 Descriptions, drawings, observations and numerical data should 
be confined to left-hand pages of notebooks. Statements of rea- 
soning, calculations and conclusions should be written on right- 
hand pages. Calculations should be written out in full with inter- 
mediate and final results definitely named. Conclusions should 
refer directly to the expressed purpose of the experiment and 



PHYSICS 67 

should follow from the data and reasoning as clearly and logically 
as the conclusion of a proposition in geometry follows from the 
given conditions and the proof. This arrangement of notes is 
not applicable to chemistry. 

5 Experiments marked with a * are regarded as fundamental 
and should be included in every laboratory course. The remain- 
ing 10 experiments necessary to complete the minimum require- 
ment may be selected according to the equipment of the school 
and the judgment of the teacher. 

6 Experiments not performed by the student should in general 
be performed by the teacher as demonstration exercises to be 
observed and discussed by the class. Brief notes of these and other 
demonstration exercises should be taken in class and written carefully 
in the notebooks out of class. Notes of experiments and of demon- 
strations should appear together in the notebooks in the order in 
which they are done. They should be numbered separately, 
however, as experiment 1, experiment 2, etc. and demonstration 
1, demonstration 2, etc. 

7 Every notebook should contain an index at the beginning 
showing the title of each experiment and demonstration, and the 
page on which it may be found. 

INDEX OF EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED 



No. of i 
exp. 


Title of experiment 


1 
Page 






i 










| 














1 



8 When the notebook has been completed, the teacher should 
attach the following certificate to the inside of the front cover: 

High School N. Y. 

190. . 

This notebook contains the original record of work done by 

in the laboratory of the 

High School under my immedi- 
ate supervision. The records of experiments on the left-hand 
pages were written in the laboratory at the time when the experi- 
ments were performed. 

[Signed] 

Teacher of 



68 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

9 A student taking the Department's examination must prepare 
a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer 
paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index 
must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true 
abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the 
notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted 
to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement, must be access- 
ible to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the Department 
for a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the 
course. 

10 Schools not equipped to perform as many as 35 experiments 
may offer 18 experiments selected from those designated by a star. 
In such cases notebooks shall be rated on a basis of 10 credits for 
maximum excellence. 

1 1 Directions for performing experiments are to be regarded as sug- 
gestive rather than mandatory. It is expected that progressive 
teachers will adapt methods to conditions obtaining in their several 
schools. 

k j Experiment 1* 

MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTHS, AREAS AND VOLUMES - 

Measure the various dimensions of a solid,, of regular geo- 
metric shape, in centimeters and in inches. Calculate the areas 
of the several faces in square centimeters and in square inches. 
Calculate the volumes of the solid in cubic centimeters and in cubic 
inches. Determine the volume of the solid also by the displacement 
of water in a graduate. 

Experiment 2* 
MASS OF UNIT VOLUME OF A SOLID 

Weigh several solids whose volumes have been found, and thus 
determine their masses. From their masses and volumes find their 
several densities. 

Experiment 3 

GRAVITY PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS 

By submerging a suitable gage in water to various depths, de- 
termine the relative pressures of the water at those depths. At any 
chosen depth turn the face of the gage in several directions without 
raising or lowering the center of the face. What relation between 
pressure and direction ? What relation between pressure and depth ? 



PHYSICS 69 

Experiment 4 
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE: SINKING BODIES 

Find the loss of weight in water of some sinking solid, and with 
the aid of an overflow can find the weight of the water displaced. 
What relation between the two results? How might the result of 
this experiment have been anticipated from the conclusion of 
experiment 3? 

Experiment 5 

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE: FLOATING BODIES 

Weigh some body less dense than water, and then as in experi- 
ment 4 find the weight of the water it displaces. What relation 
between the two weights? How is the result of this experiment 
related to the result of experiment 3 ? 

Experiment 6* 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF HEAVY SOLIDS 

Weigh at least three different solids in air and in water. From 
the conclusion of experiment 4, find the specific gravity of each. 

Experiment 7 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIGHT SOLIDS 

Weigh some light solid, such as wood, in air. Weigh a suitable 
sinker in water, and then weigh the light body and the sinker in 
water. From the conclusions of experiments 4 and 5 calculate the 
specific gravity of the light solid. 

Experiment 8 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS 

i Weigh an empty stoppered bottle ; then weigh when filled with 
water, and again when filled with another liquid. Find the specific 
gravity of the other liquid. 

2 Weigh a heavy solid in air, in water, and in another liquid. 

From the conclusion of experiment 4 find the specific gravity of the 

other liquid. 

Experiment 9 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AIR 

Weigh a large empty bottle (of at least 2 quarts capacity) fitted 
with tight rubber stopper and pinchcock. Pump the air from the 
bottle and weigh again. Open the pinchcock under water and 
later weigh the bottle with the water that has taken the place of the 
exhausted air. Calculate the specific gravity of the air. 



yO NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Care should be taken to see that the bottle and fittings are 
perfectly dry at first. No large weights should be taken from or 
added to the balance between the first and second weighings. It is 
best to obtain this difference of weight by moving the rider. 

Experiment 10 

BOYLE'S LAW 

Find by means of a J tube with short arm closed, or with a gas 
burette, several volumes of the same mass of dry air when sub- 
jected to different pressures obtained by pouring mercury into the 
open arm (the barometric pressure at the time of the experiment 
to be used as the initial pressure). 

What relation between the volume of the air and the total pres- 
sure to which it is subjected? 

Experimental i* 
EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE PARALLEL FORCES IN ONE PLANE 

By means of three spring balances or two balances and a weight, 
find the values of three parallel forces acting at several different 
positions on a rod. What relation between the total force operating 
in one direction and the total force operating in the opposite 
direction ? What relation between the two outside forces and their 
respective distances from the middle force? What general relation 
between any two forces and their respective distances from the 
third force? 

Experiment 12 

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS 

With four or more spring balances apply parallel forces at various 
points on a rod so as to produce equilibrium. How does the sum of 
the forces operating in one direction compare with the sum of the 
forces operating in the opposite direction? How does the sum of 
the moments tending to produce clockwise rotation compare with 
the sum of the moments tending to produce counter-clockwise 
rotation? Does this relation of moments depend upon the point 
selected as the axis of rotation? What points, then, may be 
selected as axes of rotation? 

Experiment 13* 
TO FIND THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF THE WEIGHT OF A BODY 

Weigh an irregular bar of wood (e.g. a lath with a block of wood 
nailed to one end) and balance it over a fulcrum to locate its center 



physics yi 

of gravity. Hang a known weight to some part of the bar and 

balance over a fulcrum again. By the law of moments found in 

experiment 12, calculate the distance from the fulcrum to the point 

at which the weight of the bar must act in order to balance the 

known weight. How far is this point from the center of gravity of 

the bar? 

Experiment 14 

EQUILIBRIUM OF FOUR FORCES AT RIGHT ANGLES IN ONE PLANE 

On glass marbles support horizontally a square board in which 
are seven rows of holes at equal intervals, each row containing 
seven holes. With spring balances apply four forces at right 
angles so that equilibrium is produced. Note the direction, mag- 
nitude, and point of application of each force. 

What relation between the two forces acting in opposite direc- 
tions? What relation between the magnitudes of the two pairs 
of parallel forces and the respective distances between them? 
Select any hole in the board as an axis of rotation and find the sum 
of the moments of all the forces with respect to that axis. Select 
at least one other hole and repeat the calculation. What genera 1 
law of moments seems to be demonstrated? 

Experiment 15* 

EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE CONCURRENT FORCES IN ONE PLANE 
The parallelogram of forces 

With three spring balances pull upon three strings that meet 
at a point. Slide the notebook under the strings and record 
accurately the direction and magnitude of each force. Draw 
lines to represent the positions of the strings, and measuring 
from the point of meeting lay off distances to represent the mag- 
nitudes of the forces. Upon two lines construct a parallelogram 
and draw a diagonal from the point of meeting. How does this 
diagonal compare in direction and magnitude with the line repre- 
senting the third original force? 

Experiment 16 

RESOLUTION OF A SINGLE FORCE INTO TWO COMPONENTS AT RIGHT 

ANGLES 

Suspend a known weight from a point on the vertical side of a 
post or bar of wood fixed in an upright position. A spring balance 
should be included in the upper part of the suspending cord, and 
a light wooden rod about 15 inches long should be placed as a 



J2 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

horizontal brace about 18 inches below the point of suspension 
to hold the weight away from the upright bar. Attach a spring 
balance to the outer end of the horizontal bar and note what ten- 
sion is required acting horizontally to permit the released bar to 
fall. Draw a right triangle whose sides shall represent the upright 
bar, the horizontal rod and the slanting string, and find the values 
of the vertical and horizontal components of the tension of the 
first spring balance. 

Experiment 17* 

THE INCLINED PLANE, WITH FORCE PARALLEL TO PLANE 

Incline a smooth board or plate of glass at an angle of about 30 
with the horizon, and with a spring balance find the force necessary 
to draw a small loaded car up the incline. This force may be found 
by pushing the car gently up the incline and letting it follow the 
finger slowly back to a position of rest and then pushing the car a 
little down the incline and letting it follow the finger to a position of 
rest. The average of the two balance readings at rest will be the 
true force required to sustain or move the car with the effect of 
friction eliminated. Calculate the work necessary to move the 
car along the plane between any two selected points. Calculate 
also the work necessary to lift the weight of the car through the 
vertical hight represented by the difference of level of the two 
points. How do the two amounts of work compare with each 
other? 

Experiment 18 

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION 

With an Atwood's machine or with a smooth ball rolling down 
an inclined plane find the law of relation between total acceleration 
and the time during which the accelerating force has been operating. 

Experiment 19* 

LAWS OF THE PENDULUM: AMPLITUDE, MASS, LENGTH 

Swing pendulums of equal lengths but of different weights through 
equal arcs and note the number of vibrations a minute. Swing 
the same pendulum through short and long arcs and note the num- 
ber of vibrations a minute. Note the number of vibrations a 
minute for pendulums of various lengths and find what relation 
there is between the length of a pendulum and its number of vibra- 
tions a minute. 



physics 73 

Experiment 20* 
TESTING THE FIXED POINTS OF A THERMOMETER 

Completely cover the bulb of a thermometer with cracked ice 
contained in a funnel, and record the thermometer reading. Place 
the thermometer in the steam over a flask of boiling water and 
note the reading. From the barometer reading at the time of 
the experiment calculate the true temperature of steam. What 
is the freezing point error of your thermometer? What is its boiling 
point error? 

Experiment 21 

COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION 

By means of a steam jacket and magnifying lever find how much 
a rod of brass, iron or aluminum increases in length for a known 
rise of temperature. By calculation find how much a rod 1 centi- 
meter long would increase in length for a rise of i° C. 

Experiment 22 

INCREASE OF VOLUME OF AIR HEATED UNDER CONSTANT PRESSURE 

Obtain a heavy glass tube about 40 centimeters long and 1.5 
millimeters in diameter of bore. This tube should be sealed at one 
end, filled with thoroughly dry air (drawn through a bath of sulphuric 
acid nearly filled with broken glass beads) and stopped near the open 
end with a mercury column about 4 centimeters long. Hold the 
tube either vertically or horizontally first in a bath of cracked ice 
and water and then in a bath of free steam. Measure the length of 
the air column both at the highest and the lowest temperature, and 
also note the barometer reading. Find by what fractional part of 
its own volume a cubic centimeter of air would be increased while 
its temperature is raised from o° C to i° C. 

Experiment 23 
LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE, METHOD OF MIXTURES 

At several different trials mix two known masses of hot and cold 
water at known temperatures, and note the temperature of each 
mixture. Calculate from the masses and changes of temperature 
the number of calories lost and gained by the hot and cold water 
respectively. 

How is the temperature change of each body of water related to 
its mass? 



74 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Experiment 24* 
SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SOLID 

Wind a strip of copper, lead or zinc about 3 centimeters wide and 
long enough to make a coil weighing 400 or 500 grams, into a com- 
pact coil. Suspend the coil in free steam for about five minutes and 
then plunge it into a known mass (100 to 150 grams) of cold water 
at a known temperature and note the resulting temperature. How 
much heat is lost by one gram of the metal while its temperature 
falls one degree? 

Experiment 25* 

HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE 

Put about 100 grams of dry ice in small lumps into about 200 
grams of hot water (about So°C) of known temperature, and note 
the resulting temperature. Weigh again to find the exact weight of 
the ice used. How much heat was used to melt 1 gram of ice ? 

Experiment 26 

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER 

Pass dry steam into a known mass of cold water, whose known 
temperature is about io° lower than the temperature of the room, 
till the resulting temperature is about io° higher than that of the 
the room. Weigh again to find the mass of the steam introduced. 
By calculation find how much heat is given out by a gram of steam 
in changing from vapor to boiling water. 

Sound 

Experiment 27 

VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR 

Arrange a large pendulum that may be seen for a considerable 
distance so that it will beat half seconds. The pendulum should be 
screened so that it may be seen only in the middle part of the swing. 
A sharp sound like the stroke of a hammer on a board or box should 
be made immediately behind the screen regularly as the pendulum 
reaches the lowest point of its arc. Observers should move away 
from or toward the pendulum till the sound of each stroke of the 
hammer reaches them at the same time with the next beat of the 
pendulum. The distance from the observer to the pendulum will 
represent the velocity of sound per half second. 



physics 75 

Experiment 28* 

THE WAVE LENGTH OF A SOUND 

With a tuning fork and large (i£ inches) glass tube to be raised 
and lowered in ajar of water find the quarter wave length of the 
sound given by the fork. From the results of experiment 27 find 
about how many times a second the fork must vibrate. 

Experiment 29* 
NUMBER OF VIBRATIONS OF A TUNING FORK 

With a diapason tuning fork having large amplitude of vibration, 
and a heavy pendulum provided with a stylus or bristle obtain 
simultaneous records of the vibrations of the fork and pendulum 
upon smoked glass. Count the vibrations of the pendulum for 
several minutes to obtain its average rate a minute. Then by com- 
parison of records on the glass find the number of vibrations of the 
fork a second. 

Light 

Experiment 30* 

Place a paper screen with an oiled or paraffined spot in its center 
between a candle on one side and a group of four similar 
candles on the other. Move the screen back and forth until a 
position is found at which it is equally illuminated from both sides. 
Note the distance from the screen to each source of light. Repeat 
with two or three candles on one side of the screen and one on the 
other. What relation between the two distances and the quantity 
of light sent from each source? 

Experiment 31* 
LAW OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT 

Upon a horizontal sheet of paper stand a plane mirror, and draw 
a line marking the position of the face of the mirror. Stick a pin 
vertically in the paper about 5 centimeters in front of the mirror. 
Locate the image of the pin by two widely divergent sight lines. 
How are the pin and image located with respect to the face of the 
mirror? From the place where one of the sight lines crosses the 
mirror line draw a line to the pin. This marks the path of the 
incident ray from the pin to the mirror. At the point of incidence 
erect a perpendicular to the line of the mirror and measure the. 
angles of incidence and of reflection. How do these two angles 
compare ? 



j6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Experiment 32 

IMAGES IN A PLANE MIRROR 

Repeat experiment 28 placing a drawing of a scalene triangle 
in front of the mirror. Locate the images of the vertices of the 
triangle and construct the image of the triangle. What conclu- 
sions may be made in reference to the position, character, and size 
of the image ? 

Experiment 33 

IMAGES IN A CONCAVE MIRROR 

By methods of experiments 28 and 29 determine the position, 
size and character of the image formed by a concave mirror when 
the object is placed (1) within the principal focal distance, (2) 
between the focus and the center of curvature, (3) outside the 
center of curvature. Verify the equation of the sum of the recip- 
rocals of conjugate focal distances with twice the reciprocal of the 
radius. What relation between the sizes of images and their dis- 
tances from the mirror? 

Experiment 34 

THE PATH OF A RAY OF LIGHT PASSING THROUGH A GLASS PRISM 

Place a glass prism (a plate of glass about 5 centimeters square 
is best) on a horizontal sheet of paper and by sighting with pins 
as markers find the path of a ray of light by which some object 
is seen through the glass. In what direction is a ray of light de- 
flected in passing from a rarer to a denser medium, in passing from 
a denser to a rarer medium? At what angle of incidence would 
there be no deflection? 

Experiment 35* 

FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVERGING LENS 

Find the focal length of a converging lens either by projecting 
an image of the sun on a paper screen, or by the method of observ- 
ing the position of the image of a distant object such as a tree or 
church spire. 

Experiment 36* 

CONJUGATE FOCI OF A CONVERGING LENS 

Project upon a small screen in a dark room images of a bright 
object placed at various distances from the lens, and note the 



physics yy 

several distances of object and image from the lens. See if these 

iii 

distances conform to the law expressed in the formula 1 = — 

D Di F. 
What relation between the distance of the image from the lens 
and the size of the image? What general relation between distance 
of object and distance of image from the lens? 

Magnetism and electricity 

Experiment 37* 

LINES OF FORCE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 

By scattering fine iron filings over cardboard placed over mag- 
nets obtain diagrams of the lines of force (1) about a single bar 
magnet, (2) about two like poles, (3) about two unlike poles, (4) 
about two bar magnets placed at right angles to each other thus T, 
with a space of 2^ inches or 3 inches between the magnets. 

What laws of mutual attraction and repulsion of poles seem to be 
illustrated by the curves? 

Experiment 38* 

LINES OF FORCE ABOUT A CURRENT-BEARING CONDUCTOR 

Pass a stout copper wire vertically through the center of a 
horizontal cardboard. Send a current from two or three cells 
through the wire, and with a small compass explore the magnetic 
field about the wire and mark out the lines of force. Sprinkle 
iron filings on the cardboard and draw the resulting curves. Re- 
peat the whole experiment with the current in the wire reversed. 

State a law of relation between the direction of the current and 
the direction of the lines of force about the conductor. 

Experiment 39* 

THE STUDY OF A SIMPLE CELL 

Stand a strip of copper and a strip of zinc, each with a few inches 
of copper wire attached, in the opposite sides of a tumbler two 
thirds full of very dilute sulphuric acid. Note what seems to 
happen about the strips both before and after the connecting 
wires are brought together. Repeat the experiment after amal- 
gamating the zinc. Place the end of one wire above and the other 
below the tip of the tongue. Connect the wires with a galvan- 
oscope. Reverse the connection of the wires and note the result. 

What is the effect of amalgamating the zinc? What does the 



78 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

galvanoscope show in regard to the effect of the direction of the 
current ? 

Experiment 40* 

STUDY OF A TWO FLUID CELL 

Construct a cell having an amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric 
acid and a strip of copper in a solution of copper sulphate, using 
a porous cup to separate the liquids. Weigh both strips of metal; 
replace them in the cell; connect with a galvanometer; and take 
readings at five minute intervals for 20 minutes. Weigh the strips 
again and account for changes. Did any gas rise from either strip 
of metal? Why? What condition of the current is accounted 
for by this? 

Experiment 41 

LAWS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE 

Internal 

With cell and galvanometer connected as in experiment 40, note 
the reading when the strips are drawn half way out of the liquid, 
when three quarters out, and when thrust in at the usual depth. 
Take readings when the strips are as far apart as possible and 
again when separated only by the wall of the porous cup. What 
is the effect of the size of the plate upon resistance? What is the 
effect of the distance between plates? 

Experiment 42 

LAWS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE 

External 

Connect a cell and galvanometer with two meters of no. 28 or 
no. 30 copper wire. Increase the length of the copper wire grad- 
ually to 4 meters, and note the effect upon the strength of the 
current. Instead of a single copper wire use a double wire of the 
same size and find what length of the double wire gives the same 
resistance as the 2 meters of single wire. What effect has length 
upon the resistance of a wire? What effect has area of cross-section 
upon the resistance of a conductor? 

Experiment 43 
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR 

Wind about 50 centimeters of fine iron wire in a close spiral and 
connect in circuit with a cell and galvanometer. Note the reading 



physics 79 

when the wire is cold and again when heated over a gas flame. 
What effect has a high temperature upon resistance? 

Experiment 44 

EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON THE TEMPERATURE OF A CON- 
DUCTOR 

Introduce about 10 centimeters of very fine (no. 32) iron wire 
into a circuit with two cells connected in series. Slowly move one 
of the line wires along the iron wire so as to diminish the length of 
the iron wire in circuit. Note the temperature effect. 

Experiment 45 

DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT OVER THE BRANCHES OF A DIVIDED 

CIRCUIT 

Introduce a galvanometer into each of the branches of a divided 
circuit. By varying the lengths or cross-sections of the branches 
observe the manner in which the current seems to be distributed. 

Experiment 46 
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS TO PRODUCE THE STRONGEST CURRENT 

Arrange two cells in series and then parallel when the external 
resistance is furnished by short stout copper wires and five coils of 
a galvanometer. Repeat with the external resistance furnished 
by long fine wires and 15 coils of the galvanometer. The fine wire 
should be of German silver. From the galvanometer readings 
decide which arrangement is best for given conditions. 

Experiment 47* ,' 

THE ELECTRO-MAGNET 

Wind a rod of soft iron with an insulated copper wire and connect 
with a cell. Try the lifting power of the rod on iron filings, tacks 
and small nails when the circuit is opened and closed. With a 
compass determine the nature of each pole of the rod. Reverse 
the connections with the cell and test the poles again. What re- 
lation between the direction of the current and the nature of the 
pole presented toward you? How do the results of this experi- 
ment agree with those of experiment 38? 



80 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Experiment 48* 

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH 

Connect a telegraph key and sounder (a simple homemade 
instrument is even better than an instrument from the shops) 
with a cell; and by the use of a compass determine the condition 
of the poles of the magnet when the circuit is open and when 
closed. Do the results of your observation agree with those in 
experiment 47? 

Experiment 49* 

THE ELECTRIC BELL 

Connect a small electric bell with a cell and by use of a compass 
determine the condition of the poles of the magnet when the 
hammer of the bell is pressed and held over toward the gong, and 
when the hammer is held away from the gong. 

By drawing and description show how the hammer is kept in 
motion. 

Experiment 50* 

STUDY OF AN ELECTROMOTOR 

Pass the current from two or three cells through a simple motor 
and with a compass test the poles of the field magnet and armature 
while the armature is held at rest in several positions. With a 
simple drawing and explanation show how the current causes the 
armature to revolve. 

Experiment 51 

EFFECT PRODUCED UPON A COIL OF WIRE MOVING THROUGH A MAG- 
NETIC FIELD 

With long connecting wires join a coil of 10 turns of wire, making 
a ring 3 inches in diameter, with the binding posts of an astatic 
galvanometer. Move the coil to a position in front of a strong 
magnet. Account for the effect upon the galvanometer. Draw 
the coil suddenly away from the magnet and account for the result 
as before. 

Experiment 52 

STUDY OF A DYNAMO 

Connect a small dynamo with a galvanometer of five turns and 
cause the armature to revolve with slowly increasing speed. Ac- 
count for the effect upon the galvanometer, including constancy 
of direction. Repeat with a uniform moderate rotation and 
account for the small initial effect and its gradual building up or 
increase. 



PHYSICS 8l 

Experiment 53 
ELECTROPLATING 

Attach a large clean wire nail to one terminal of a battery of 
three cells in series and a strip of copper [see Experiment 40] to the 
other terminal. Plunge both nail and copper strip into a solution 
of copper sulphate for a few moments and note the result. Re- 
verse the positions of nail and strip and repeat. Which arrange- 
ment is best? Upon which terminal (anode or cathode) is metal 
deposited? 

After the nail has been well coated, let it dry and then polish it 
by gentle rubbing with a dusty blackboard eraser. The copper 
plated nail may be nickel plated by attaching it to a suitable elec- 
trode in a solution of ammonium-nickel sulphate. 

Experiment 54 

DEVELOPMENT OP AN ELECTROSTATIC SERIES 

Rub a glass rod with silk and present the rod to the plate of an 
electroscope. Rub a stick of sealing wax with flannel or catskin 
and present the wax to the plate of an electroscope. Determine 
with the electroscope the kind of electrification produced on each of 
six or eight different insulators, when each is rubbed with the others, 
and form a series such that each substance is positively charged 
when rubbed with any succeeding substance. 



82 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



CHEMISTRY 

Topical syllabus in chemistry 

The course of instruction in chemistry should be based on the 
following: 

i Individual laboratory work consisting of exercises requiring 
30 double periods of work; at least 25 of these exercises should be 
chosen from the appended list, all exercises marked with a * to 
be included. 

2 Instruction by lecture table demonstrations, to be used mainly 
as a basis for questioning upon the general principles of chemistry 
and their applications. 

3 The study of at least one standard textbook, to the end that the 
pupil may gain a comprehensive and connected view of the more 
important facts and laws of elementary chemistry. 

It is recommended that throughout the course especial attention 
be paid to the common illustrations of chemical laws and to their 
industrial applications. 

The general directions preceding the laboratory syllabus in 
physics excepting paragraphs 8 and 10 appiy also to the syllabus 
in chemistry. 

The certificate attached to the notebook in chemistry should be 
expressed in the following words: This notebook contains the 

original record of work done by 

in the laboratory of the High School. All 

drawings, descriptions of processes, observed phenomena and 
numerical data were recorded in the laboratory at the time the 
experiments were performed. 
Introductory work 

It is recommended that the introductory work conform to the 
historical development of the subject, i.e. heating of metals 
in air, with an examination before and after heating. This 
examination should include weighing to show gain in weight, 
and the determination of the nature of the substance taken 
from the air. 
Oxygen. 
Element. 

Preparation by the decomposition of: 
Mercuric oxid. 
Potassium chlorate. 
Properties. 



CHEMISTRY 83 

Physical: color, odor, solubility in water, weight relative to 

air. 
Chemical: tendency to form oxids, terms oxidation and 
combustion explained. 
Necessity to life. 
Hydrogen. 
Element. 
Preparation. 

Electrolysis of water. 

Action of certain metals (e.g. sodium) on water. 
Replacement in acids by metals. 
Properties. 

Physical: as with oxygen. 
Chemical: burns in air. 
Uses. 

Oxy-hydrogen light and blast lamp. 
Compounds. 
Water. 

Synthesis by weight and by volume. 
Law of definite proportions. 
. ] Combining weights. 
Solution. 

Terms water of crystallization, efflorescent substance and 
deliquescent substance defined. 
Hydrogen peroxid. 
Uses. 

Law of multiple proportions. 
Atomic hypothesis. 

Development from laws of definite and multiple proportions. 
Chlorin. 
Element. 
Preparation. 

Electrolysis of brine (demonstration). 

Oxidation of hydrochloric acid (e.g. by manganese dioxicD 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: direct combination with other elements to form 
chlorids; action with water. 
Uses. 

Bleaching action. 
Compounds. 

Hydrochloric acid. 



84 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Preparation: a chlorid and sulphuric acid. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: a typical acid, e.g. action on litmus, and on 
metals. 
Uses. 

Digestive; preparation of chlorin. 
Composition by volume (determination with sodium amalgam, 
demonstration) . 
Avogadro's hypothesis. 

Development of reason for belief that the hydrogen molecule con- 
tains two atoms. 
Determination of the density of gases. 
Calculation of molecular weights from density. 
Introduction of formulas and writing of equations already studied 

With emphasis on atomic and molecular weight relations. 
Sodium (and potassium) 
Element. 
Preparation. 

Electrolysis of fused sodium hydroxid. 
Properties. 

Physical: color, luster, hardness, power to conduct heat 

and electricity. 
Chemical: action with water (evaporation of solution); 
study of hydroxid as a typical base, viz, action with lit- 
mus, action with acids (neutralization). 
Solution. 

Electrolytes (acids, bases, salts). 

Nonelectrolytes (sugar, alcohol, glycerin, distilled water). 

Ionization hypothesis. 

Atom and ion distinguished. 
Terms acid and base defined. 
Neutralization. 
Sodium and potassium compounds. 
Hydroxids. 

Commercial preparation and uses. 
Chlorids. 

Occurrence, purification and uses. 
Carbonates. 
Production. 
Solvay process. 



CHEMISTRY 85 

Uses. 

Washing, cooking. 
Nitrates. 

Occurrence and uses. 
Sulphur. 
Element. 
Occurrence. 
Preparation. 
Allotropic forms. 

Rhombic, prismatic, amorphous. 
Crystalline form dependent upon temperature. 
Properties. 

Chemical: direct combination with copper, zinc, iron. 
Uses. 

Matches, vulcanizing, gunpowder. 
Compounds. 
Occurrence. 
Hydrogen sulphid. 

Preparation: ferrous sulphid and dilute acid. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: combustion, "action on metals, formation of 
sulphids by precipitation. 
Sulphur dioxid (sulphurous anhydrid). 

Preparation: burning of sulphur; reduction of sulphuric 

acid; action of an acid upon sulphites. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: action with water, reducing action. 
Uses: disinfectant, bleaching, manufacture of sulphuric 
acid. 
Sulphur trioxid (sulphuric anhydrid). 

Preparation: "contact" process. 
Sulphuric acid. 

Preparation: sulphur trioxid with water (contact process). 
Properties. 

Physical: specific gravity and boiling point. 
Chemical: action on metals. 
Uses: dehydrating agent; preparation of other acids with 
reason for same; illustrations of wide industrial use. 



86 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Nitrogen. 

Element. 
Occurrence. 
Preparation. 
From air. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: relation to combustion, general inactivity. 
The atmosphere. 

Proofs that air is a mixture : varying composition ; no energy 
reaction on mixing components; fractionation of liquid 
|. air. 

Other constituents: carbon dioxid — relation to plant and 
animal life; argon and helium as examples of inert gases; 
aqueous vapor. 
Compounds. 
Ammonia. 

Occurrence : decomposition product. 

Preparation: by-product of gas works; action of ammonium 
i salt with strong base. 

Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: basic character of water solution, ammonium 
radical. 
Uses: refrigerating agent, deturgent. 
Oxids briefly considered. 
Nitric acid. 

Preparation: nitrates with sulphuric acid. 
Properties. 

Chemical: reaction with metals, oxidizing action. 
Uses: aqua regia; illustration of industrial applications. 
Nitrates. 

Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (nitrification). 
Explosives. 
Elements of the nitrogen group. 
Phosphorus. 
Occurrence, "j 
Allotropic forms. 
Use. 
Matches. 
Arsenic, antimony and bismuth mentioned. 



CHEMISTRY 87 

Halogen group. 

Preparation of bromin and iodin. 
Comparison of physical properties. 
Heats of formation of compounds, e. g. hydrogen. 
Relative replacement. 
Carbon. 
Element. 

Distribution in nature and allotropic forms. 
Preparation of commercial forms. 

Charcoal, coke, boneblack, lampblack, gas carbon. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: reducing action, formation of carbids, e. g. cal- 
cium carbid and carborundum ; relation to organic matter. 
Uses. 

Fuel, ore reducer, absorbent, decolorizer. 
Compounds. 
Carbon dioxid. 

Natural formation and occurrence. 
Preparation: carbonates with acids. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: nonsupporter of combustion, formation of 
hard waters. 
Uses: mineral waters, bread-making, fire extinguishers. 
Carbon monoxid. 

Preparation: reduction of carbon dioxid by carbon. 
Properties: physical; chemical — combustibility, action on 

red corpuscles of the blood. 
Use: water gas. 
Silicon dioxid. 
Use. 

Glass, crown and flint. 
Calcium compounds. 
Calcium carbonate. 
Occurrence. 

Marble, limestone, shells. 
Properties. 

Solubility in water containing carbon dioxid. 
Uses. 
Building materials, making of quicklime, flux in iron furnaces. 



88 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Calcium oxid and calcium hydroxid. 
Preparation and uses. 

Mortar, its hardening compared with the hardening of 
cement. 
Calcium sulphate. 

Gypsum and plaster of paris. 
Calcium phosphates. 

Use in fertilizers. 
Bleaching powder. 
Uses. 

Bleaching, disinfecting. 
Magnesium. 
Zinc. 
Metal. 

Preparation of commercial forms. 

Ingot, sheet mossy. 
Properties. 

Physical; as with sodium. 
Chemical: action with acids, corrosion. 
Uses. < 

Galvanizing,^batteries,' brass. 
Compounds. 

Oxid as a paint base. 
Mercury. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 

Scientific instruments, amalgams. 
Compounds. 

Chlorids (calomel, and corrosive sublimate) 
Copper. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 

Conductor, electroplating, alloys (brass, bronze aluminum 
bronze) . 
Compounds. 

Copper sulphate. 
Uses. 

Coagulum and fungicide. 



CHEMISTRY 89 

Silver. 

Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 
Coin, jewelry, mirrors. 
Compounds. 

Uses in photography (developing, fixing, toning). 
Gold. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 
Platinum. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 
Aluminum. 
Metal. 

Preparation. 

Electrolytic process. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: action with hydrochloric acid and with sodium 
hydroxid. 
Uses. 

Paint, conductor, common utensils, aluminum bronze. 
Compounds. 
Oxid. 

Corundum and emery. 
Hydroxid. 

Preparation from alum. 

Uses: mordant, water purification (coagulum). 
Iron. 
Metal. 

Metallurgy. 

Blast furnace process (cast iron). 
Puddling (wrought iron). 
Bessemer process (Bessemer iron). 
Open hearth process (steel). 
Comparison of cast iron, wrought iron and steel. 

Composition, fusibility, malleability and tenacity, magnetic 
permeability, tempering. 
Common uses of cast iron, wrought iron, Bessemer iron and steel. 
Protective coatings to prevent corrosion. 



90 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Compounds. 
Oxids. 

Ferric oxid as paint base and rouge. 
Pyrite. 

Ferrous and ferric chlorids illustrative of change in valence 
(oxidation and reduction). 
Tin. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 

Tinned ware, solder, block tin pipes. 
Lead. 
Metal. 

Extraction from galena by roasting. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical: corrosion. 
Uses. 

Pipe, shot, alloys, (solder, type metal). 
Compounds. 

Red and white lead as paint bases. 
Compounds of carbon. 
Sources. 

Destructive distillation of wood. 

Gas, wood alcohol, acetic acid, charcoal. 
Destructive distillation of coal. 
Gas, ammonia, coal tar, coke. 
Distillation of petroleum. 

Natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, paraffin. 
Hydrocarbons. 
Marsh gas. 

Occurrence: natural gas and "fire damp." 
Properties. 
Substitution products. 

Chloroform and iodoform. 
Alcohols. 

Methyl alcohol. 
Ethyl alcohol. 

Preparation: fermentation. 

Uses: solvent, in beverages, preparation of ether. 
Aldehydes. 

Formaldehyde. 

Preparation: oxidation of methyl alcohol. 



CHEMISTRY 91 

Acids. 
Formic. 

Relation to formaldehyde. 
Acetic. 

Preparation by fermentation of alcohoi. 
Ethereal salts. 
Ethyl acetate. 
Fats. 

Soap making and glycerin 
Carbohydrates. 
Starch. 
Sugar. 
Cellulose. 

Laboratory syllabus in chemistry 

In the following outline the word exercise is used to indicate 
work occupying a double period; an experiment may occupy a 
double period or only part of a double period. Detailed directions 
for common experiments are omitted in most cases; the questions 
indicate the lines of thought to be developed from the experimental 
work. 

Exercise I* 

Experiment 1 

HEATING OF METALS IN AIR 

Examine a bright piece of copper, of magnesium, and of zinc, 
noting in each case the color, luster and tenacity of metal. Hold 
the piece of copper in the outer flame of burner till red hot. Re- 
move from flame and examine carefully. In what respects does 
the surface material differ from the original copper? Repeat 
with magnesium. Results? Place about half a gram of zinc 
dust in a layer on the asbestos square. Direct on it from above 
the flame of a Bunsen burner. Results? 

Experiment 2 

TO S7IOW CHANGE IN WEIGHT OVER COUNTERPOISE, QUALITATIVELY, 
UPON HEATING ONE OF THE ABOVE METALS 

i Zinc dust in open crucible. 

2 Magnesium ribbon in ignition tube. 

3 Fine copper wire or gauze in open crucible. 

Has there been a loss or gam in weight? What explanation can 
be made for the change in weight? 



02 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Exercise II* 

Experiment 3 

DECOMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND FORMED BY HEATING MERCURY IN 

AIR 

Heat a little of the red powder in an ignition tube. What sub- 
stance collects on the cooler portion of the tube a short distance 
above the powder? What is the difference between the behavior 
of a glowing splinter in air and a glowing splinter held in the test 
tube? What is the state of the substance that produces the effect? 
Of what is the red powder composed? Where did each of these 
substances come from when the red powder was made? 

Experiment 4 
DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN AIR (VOLUMETRIC) 

Volume of air inclosed by graduate clamped with mouth down- 
ward and under water; oxygen absorbed by very small piece of 
phosphorous supported on a copper wire. What percentage of 
oxygen do you find in the air? 

Exercise III* 
Experiment 5 

PREPARATION OF OXYGEN BY THE DECOMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM 
CHLORATE MIXED WITH MANGANESE DIOXID 

Heat a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxid 
in a test tube and collect the resulting gas over water. Small 
portion of gas tested with a splinter and remainder collected for 
experiment 6. Treat black residue with hot water, filter, and add 
silver nitrate to filtrate. Result? Then test solution of potassium 
chlorate with silver nitrate. Examine residue on filter paper. 
Which of the original substances seems unchanged? What proof 
have you of change in one of them? Where do you think the 
oxygen came from? 

Experiment 6 

FORMATION OF OXIDS 

Burn carbon, sulphur, magnesium, red phosphorus and iron in 
oxygen. In each case note intensity of action, presence or ab- 
sence of flame, color of flame, character of product formed, and 
effect of solution of product* on red and blue litmus. Also com- 
pare tenacity of iron with that of its products. 



CHEMISTRY 93 

Exercise IV* 
Experiment 7 

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER 

Pass the current from two or three cells through acidulated water 
in the usual apparatus for electrolysis. What is the direction of the 
current? Which electrode is positive? Which negative? Apply 
terms anode and cathode. What does the splinter test show about 
the gas that collects at the anode? Is the same gas liberated at the 
cathode? How does the amount of gas liberated at the anode 
compare with the amount at the cathode? 

Experiment 8 
DECOMPOSITION OF WATER BY SODIUM 

Fold a piece of sodium as large as an apple seed in dry filter paper 
and thrust quickly upward into a test tube of water inverted in 
water. A pair of iron forceps should be used to handle the paper 
and sodium. What gas collects in the test tube ? Where does this 
gas come from? 

Exercise V* 

Experiment 9 

PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN BY REPLACEMENT IN AN ACID BY A 

METAL 

Zinc or iron with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid 
What advantage has this method over the previous method for 
preparing hydrogen? From what material does the hydrogen 
probably come? Is there anything dissolved in the liquid, and, 
if so, what does it probably contain? 

Experiment 10 
PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN 

How do you determine the relative weight of hydrogen and air? 
Does it burn? Does it support combustion? Why must the joints 
of the apparatus be tight? Why do you discard the first portion 
of the gas collected? What is the effect of passing hydrogen over 
heated copper oxid? What becomes of the oxygen? A material 
which acts towards an oxid in this way is called a reducing agent. 



94 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Exercise VI 
Experiment n 

EQUIVALENT OF SODIUM, MAGNESIUM OR ZINC 

What weight of the metal is required to liberate i gram of hydro- 
gen ? What name is given to this weight ? 

Exercise VII* 

Experiment 12 

PREPARATION OF CHLORIN BY OXIDATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID 

Heat hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxid in a flask. From 
which of the original materials is the chlorin derived? With what 
does the oxygen of the manganese dixoid combine ? 

Experiment 13 
PROPERTIES OF CHLORIN 

Into jars of chlorin gas plunge a lighted taper, and wet and dry 
colored cloths. Why do you not collect chlorin as you did 
hydrogen? Does chlorin support combustion? The taper is com- 
posed of carbon and hydrogen, what is the evidence that one of these 
elements is liberated ? Which one combines with the chlorin ? Sum 
up your evidence as to the tendency of chlorin to combine with 
hydrogen. Explain the difference in behavior of chlorin toward 
the wet and dry cloths. What is your conclusion as to the activity 
of chlorin? 

Exercise VIII* 

Experiment 14 
PREPARATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID WITH SODIUM CHLORID AND 

SULPHURIC ACID 

Heat common salt and sulphuric acid in a flask. Collect the 
resulting gas by dry displacement. 

Of what elements is hydrochloric acid composed? Where does 
the hydrogen come from? The chlorin? Why was sulphuric acid 
selected? (Class discussion) 

Experiment 15 
PROPERTIES OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID 

How do you determine the relative weight of hydrochloric acid 
and air? Explain why the gas is not collected over water. Hydro- 
chloric acid is a typical acid. What properties, then, characterize 
acids? How can silver nitrate be used as a test for hydrochloric 
acid and other soluble chlorids? 



CHEMISTRY 95 

Exercise IX 

Experiment 16 

DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OP A LITER OF OXYGEN 

Heat about 9 grams of dry potassium chlorate and 6 grams 
thoroughly dryed manganese dioxid in a dry test tube, with a 
loose plug of glass wool or dry asbestos wool above the powder. 
The gas is to be collected in a bottle of about 2 liters capacity. 
Weigh to a centigram the test tube, containing the mixture, and 
the upper part of the delivery tube before (and after) the heating. 
Measure volume of gas evolved. From this volume and its observed 
temperature and barometric pressure corrected for water vapor 
tension calculate the volume at o° and 760 millimeters. Using 
the weight of oxygen as found, calculate the weight of a liter under 
standard conditions. 

Exercise X* 

Experiment 17 

ACTION OF SODIUM WITH WATER 

Put a piece of sodium not larger than an apple seed into a few 
drops of water in a crucible. Note action on water and effect of 
tilusoon on litmus. Evaporate solution to dryness. 

How does sodium behave when placed on water? What gas is 
liberated? Sodium hydroxid is a typical base. What are the 
characteristics of a typical base? 

Experiment 18 

SODIUM HYDROXID AS A TYPICAL BASE 

Action on litmus, neutralization with hydrochloric acid and 
crystallization of product. 

What is the evidence that the characteristic properties of the 
acid and of the base have been destroyed? Is there any evidence 
of chemical change? Base your answer on temperature effect, 
crystalline form and taste of product. 

Exercise XI 
Experiment 19 

DETERMINATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF AN ACID AND OF AN 
ALKALINE SOLUTION BY TITRATION 

A normal solution of an acid contains 1 gram of replaceable 
hydrogen per liter. A normal solution of an alkali contains 17 
grams of replaceable hydroxyl per liter. 



96 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Problem. 10 c.cm of a half normal solution of hydrochloric 
acid exactly neutralize 5 c.cm of a solution of sodium hydroxid. 
How many grams of sodium hydroxid in a liter of the solution? 

Exercise XII* 
Experiment 20 

FLAME TESTS 

Test nitrates of lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium 
and barium. Use cobalt glass with mixtures of sodium and potassium 
salts. What is the greatest difference in the flames ? To what part of 
the salt must this be due ? Why ? What use might be made of these 
flames in analytical work? What effect does the cobalt glass have 
upon the color of the flame given by the sodium nitrate solution? 
Why? To what extent is the potassium flame effected by the 
cobalt glass? Which flame do you see when you take a mixed 
solution of sodium and potassium nitrate? Why can you not make 
the uot other one with the naked eye? When you use the cobalt 
glass, which flame of the mixed solution can be recognized? Ex- 
plain the use of the cobalt glass in making flame tests of mixtures 
of sodium and potassium salts. 

Exercise XIII* 
Experiment 21 

SOLVAY PROCESS 

. Preparation of sodium bicarbonate by the action of carbon di- 
oxid upon saturated ammoniacal brine. Dissolve 10 grams am- 
monium carbonate in 100 cubic centimeters ammonium hydroxid. 
Saturate this solution with sodium chlorid by shaking with fine 
salt. Pour off the clear liquid and through it pass carbon dioxid 
to saturation. Filter off deposit, dry between filter paper and 
examine. 

Exercise XIV 

Experiment 22 
DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION 

Heat a known weight of crystals of barium chlorid to a constant 
weight in an open crucible, and weigh the residue. Calculate the 
per cent of water in barium chlorid and then the total number of 
molecules of water of crystallization per molecule of barium chlorid. 



CHEMISTRY 97 

Exercise XV* 
Experiment 23 

STUDY OF SULPHUR 

Slowly heat roll brimstone in a beaker till it fuses and boils. 
Pour a part into cold water and let the rest cool till crusted over. 
Then break the crust and pour out the melted sulphur beneath it. 
Study changes of sulphur while being heated to the boiling point. 
Preparation of allotropic forms, rhombic, prismatic, and amor- 
phous. Upon what does the form that sulphur assumes depend? 
What is the stable form at ordinary temperature? 

Exercise XVI* 
Experiment 24 

PREPARATION OF METALLIC SULPHIDS 
Dry method 
Heat a mixture of iron filings and sulphur in a test tube. What 
is the analogy between the formation of sulphids and oxids? 

Experiment 25 
PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN SULPHID 

Treat a portion of compound formed in preceding experiment 
with an acid. Plunge a lighted splinter into a tumbler of the gas 
formed. What products are formed when we burn hydrogen 
sulphid and how do you recognize them? What does this show 
about the composition of hydrogen sulphid? 

Exercise XVII* 
Experiment 26 

PREPARATION OF SULPHUR DIOXID 

Pour sulphuric acid upon copper turnings in a flask and collect 
gas by dry displacement. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as an 
oxidizing agent. What is the usual action of a metal on an acid? 
Why do we not get this gas here? What becomes of it? How, 
then, do you account for the formation of sulphur dioxid? Com- 
plete the equation Cu -f- 2H 2 S0 4 = CuS0 4 -(- + 

Experiment 27 
PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR DIOXID 

Physical, odor, solubility; chemical, acid character of solution, 
bleaching action, reducing power. Is the water solution of sulphur 
dioxid acid or basic? Does dry sulphur dioxid give the same re- 



98 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

action? A chemical compound that combines with water to form 
an acid is an acid anhydrid. Is sulphur dioxid such a substance? 

Complete the following equation: H + S0 2 = 

How does the formula of the product differ from that of sulphuric 
acid? What is the name of the process by which this compound 
could be converted into sulphuric acid? The test for sulphuric 
acid (or other soluble sulphate) is the formation of a white precipi- 
tate with barium chlorid and which is insoluble in dilute hydro- 
chloric acid. What is the effect of the sulphurous acid on a dilute 
solution of potassium permanganate? Has the sulphurous acid 
undergone the change referred to above? What terms can be ap- 
plied respectively to the sulphurous acid and the potassium per- 
manganate ? 

Exercise XV III* 

Experiment 28 
PREPARATION OF AMMONIA 

Mix lime and ammonium chlorid with water in a flask. Com- 
plete the equation Ca(0H) 2 + 2NH 4 CI — + Ca Cl 2 

= + + CaCl 2 

Why is calcium hydroxid used? (Think why sulphuric acid was 
used in the preparation of hydrochloric acid.) 

Experiment 29 
PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA 

Invert a flask of ammonia gas over water. Physical, solubility; 
chemical, basic character of water solution. 

Exercise XIX* 
Experiment 30 
PREPARATION OF AND TEST FOR NITRIC ACID 

Heat potassium nitrate and concentrated sulphuric acid in a 
retort. Collect the distillate. Why do we use sulphuric acid in 
this preparation? Why not use hydrochloric acid? 

1 

Exercise XX 

Experiment 31 

PREPARATION OF NITRIC OXID 

Heat strong nitric acid and copper in a generating flask. What 
is the usual reaction of a metal on an acid? Why do we not get 
this gas here? What becomes of it? How, then, do you account 
for the formation of nitric oxid? 

Complete equation 3CU + 8 HN0 3 = 3CU (N0 3 ) a -f 

+ 



CHEMISTRY 99 

Experiment 32 
PROPERTIES OF NITRIC OXID 

Invert a test tube of nitric oxid over water. By pouring upward 
from another test tube introduce air or oxygen. What are the 
evidences of chemical change when nitric oxid comes in contact 
with air? What change has occurred? 

Exercise XXI* 

Experiment 33 

STUDY OF BROMIN 

Gently heat a mixture of potassium bromid, manganese dioxid 
and sulphuric acid in a test tube. Preparation; solubility in water, 
carbon disulphid, or chloroform; replacement by chlorin. What 
compounds would we expect to have formed by the addition of 
sulphuric acid to potassium bromid? How is the action modified 
by the presence of manganese dioxid? Why? Is bromin more 
soluble in water than in carbon disulphid? What characteristic 
color does bromin give to carbon disulphid? Why does not po- 
tassium bromid solution impart this color to the disulphid? Why 
does the coloration appear after the chlorin is added to the potas- 
sium bromid solution? State the relation between the heats of 
formation of potassium bromid and potassium chlorid to the action 
which has occurred. (Class discussion; 

Experiment 34 

ACTION OF SULPHURIC ACID ON POTASSIUM BROMID 

Explain the use of the materials selected for this preparation 
What chemical reaction would you expect? How do you account 
for the production of bromin? Account for the formation of sul- 
phur dioxid (compare with the action of sulphuric acid on copper) • 

Exercise XXII* 

Experiment 35 
STUDY OF IODIN 

Heat a mixture of potassium iodid, manganese dioxid and 
sulphuric acid in a test tube. Preparation; solubility in water, 
alcohol, potassium iodid solution, carbon disulphid or chloro- 
form; replacement by bromin and chlorin; starch test. Ex- 
plain the use of the materials *as in the preparation of bromin - 
Determine relative solubility of iodin in water aad in carbon disul- 
phid, and the characteristic coloration in carbon disulphid. De- 



100 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

termine, by method used in previous exercise, the relative replace- 
ment of chlorin and iodin, and of iodin and bromin. Arrange these 
halogen elements in the order of their relative replacement, and 
state the relation of the replacements to the heats of formation of 
their potassium compounds. 

Experiment 36 

ACTION OF SULPHURIC ACID ON POTASSIUM IODID 

What chemical reaction would you expect ? How do you account 
for the production of iodin? Account for the formation of the 
hydrogen sulphid? Compare with the action of sulphuric acid on 
potassium bromid. Which of the three halogen acids is the most 
stable? Which has the greatest heat of formation? Which is the 
most easily oxidized (i.e. the best reducer) by sulphuric acid? Give 
your reasons. 

Exercise XXIII* 

Experiment 37 

PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXID 

Complete the equation: Ca C0 3 -f- H CI = -f-CaCl 2 

= ...+ ... +CaCl 2 
Why can any of the common acids be used in preparing carbon 
dioxid? 

Experiment 38 

PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXID 

Physical; chemical, nonsupporter of combustion, acid character 
of water solution, reaction with limewater (temporary hardness). 
Is carbon dioxid an anhydrid? Why? What is the first effect of 
carbon dioxid on limewater? Write equation. What further 
effect occurs on continued passing of the gas? How does the 
resulting liquid differ from distilled water in its effect on a soap 
solution? Under what conditions is calcium carbonate soluble in 
water? Why is such a water called "hard"? Can such a hard 
water be softened by boiling? What became of the calcium car- 
bonate? Devise a test for a carbonate? 

Exercise XXIV 
Experiment 39 

FOUR WAYS OF PREPARING SALTS 

Direct combination, neutralization, displacement due to vola- 
tility, displacement to insolubility. Students are to devise methods 
from principles already taught. 



CHEMISTRY IOI 

Exercise XXV 

Experiment 40 

ACTION OF COBALT NITRATE ON IGNITED OXIDS OF ALUMINUM, 
ZINC AND MAGNESIUM 

Experiment 41 

IDENTIFICATION OF SIMPLE SALTS, TREATED AS UNKNOWNS, CON- 
TAINING ABOVE METALS 

Exercise XXVI 

Experiment 42 

BORAX BEAD TESTS FOR COBALT, MANGANESE, CROMIUM, IRON AND 

NICKEL 

Experiment 43 
ACTION OF METALS ON SALT SOLUTIONS 

Zinc on solutions of lead, silver, mercury, and copper ; copper on 
solutions of lead, silver, mercury, and zinc. In each case name the 
material deposited. What part does the metal added play? In 
what previous experiments have similar actions occurred? 

Exercise XXVII* 
Experiment 44 

CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT BY DISPLACEMENT 

Quantitative displacement of one of the metals in exercise XXVI. 
Weigh a small rod of pure zinc and place in a solution of copper 
sulphate. Collect the deposited metal on a filter, wash with alcohol, 
and weigh when dry. Reweigh zinc rod. Given the equivalent of 
zinc, calculate the equivalent of copper. Copper and silver nitrate 
might also be used to advantage. 

Exercise XXVIII* 

Experiment 45 

MORDANTS AND DYEING 

To a solution of alum add ammonium hydroxid to precipitation. 
Write equation. Does ammonium hydroxid precipitate litmus from 
solution? Add litmus solution to the solution containing the pre- 
cipitated aluminum hydroxid. Shake and allow to settle. What 
is the color of the supernatant liquid? What becomes of the litmus ? 
Such a combination is called a lake. (One or two other lakes 



102 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

should be made using logwood, cochineal, carmine etc.) Mordant a 
piece of cotton by soaking in alum solution wringing, then dip- 
ping in ammonium hydroxid solution. Wring. Where is the 
precipitate of ammonium hydroxid? Boil cloth in litmus solu- 
tion. Boil a piece of unmordanted cloth in a solution of lit- 
mus. Wring and thoroughly wash both pieces of cloth. What 
is the use of a mordant ? This exercise can be extended to illustrate 
the use of other mordants. 

Exercise XXIX 

Experiment 46 

REDUCTION OF FERRIC TO FERROUS CHLORID 

To a solution of ferrous sulphate add a solution of potassium 
ferricyanid. Result? This is a test for a ferrous salt. To a 
solution of ferric chlorid add potassium ferrocyanid. Result? 
This is a test for a ferric salt. To a ferric chloride solution add 
hydrochloric acid and iron (card teeth of fine iron wire). Boil. 
Test small portions until the solution fails to give the test for ferric 
iron. What iron salt is there now in the solution? Complete the 
equation FeCl 3 -f- H (nascent)= ? 

Write another equation to account for the hydrogen. 

Experiment 47 
OXIDATION OF FERROUS TO FERRIC CHLORID 

To a ferrous chlorid solution add hydrochloric acid and a strong 
oxidizing agent, preferably hydrogen peroxid or nitric acid. Apply 
the two tests for iron salts. What kind of iron is now in solution ? 

Complete equation Fe Cl 2 -f- . . . . H CI + O = . . . . r+- 

[oxidizing agent] 
Such a change in valence as illustrated in experiment 45 is termed 
reduction; that in experiment 46 is termed oxidation. Why? 

Exercise XXX* 

Experiment 48 

SILVER SALTS IN PHOTOGRAPHY 

Prepare silver bromid. 

1 Show that light is capable of initiating the reduction of silver 
bromid by treating exposed and unexposed portions of the salt 
with a developer. A developer is a reducing agent capable of con- 
tinuing but not initiating the reduction of a silver halide. 



CHEMISTRY IO3 

2 Add "hypo" to (1) freshly prepared and unexposed silver 
bromid; (2) silver bromid unexposed but mixed with developer; 
(3) exposed and developed silver bromid. Results? "Hypo" 
is the last solution used in preparing a negative. Why is it called 
the "fixer?" 

or 

Experiment 49 

GYANOTYPE OR "BLUE PRINT" PROCESS 

Coat well sized paper with ferric chlorid. Place some opaque 
object or .design on the paper and expose to the sunlight. Then 
float paper on potassium ferricyanid solution. Remove and wash 
thoroughly. Where is the deepest color developed? Which set 
of iron salts gives this color with potassium ferricyanid? What 
has happened to the ferric chlorid, and what was the cause of the 
change? (The "sizing" in the paper takes part in the reaction.) 

Exercise XXXI* 

Experiment 50 

FERMENTATION 

Fermentation of sugar; distillation of product; iodoform test 
for alcohol. What is the gas liberated during the fermentation? 
What other compound is formed? The boiling point of alcohol 
is 7 8°. How do you explain the elevation of boiling point during 
distillation? (Continue distillation until one fourth of liquid has 
passed over.) Add lime to distillate and redistill noticing tem- 
perature. Why is the lime used? Identify second distillate by 
applying a match to a very small portion in watch glass, and by 
applying iodoform test with another portion. 

Exercise XXXII 

Experiment 51 

QUALITATIVE SEPARATION OF LEAD, MERCURY (" OUS") AND SILVER 

Exercise XXXIII 

Experiment 52 

PREPARATION OF AN ETHEREAL SALT 

Ethereal salts or esters. Dissolve about a gram of sodium ace- 
tate in a very little water and then add a few drops of concentrated 
sulphuric acid. What acid would be made by this combination? 
To the test tube now add a few drops of alcohol. Warm and 



104 NE W YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

notice the odor of the ethyl acetate. Write equation to show its 
formation, viz, C 2 H s OH (alcohol) -f- (acetic acid) = (ethyl ace- 
tate) -f- 

Experiment 53 

SOAP-MAKING 

Place in a porcelain dish a piece of fat the size of a marble and 
add 4 cubic centimeters of alcohol and 10 drops of a 50% solution 
of sodium hydroxid. Heat very gently stirring constantly. Con- 
tinue boiling until the odor of alcohol is no longer perceptible. 
The alcohol is used as a common solvent for the fat and the alkali. 

The tallow is mainly glyceryl stearate C 3 H s (C^ H 3S 2 ) 3 , 
stearic acid is H(C l8 H 35 2 ). Write the equation when the glyceryl 
stearate reacts with the sodium hydroxid to form sodium stearate 
or soap. This is the residue left in the dish. 



GROUP 3 (continued) 

BIOLOGIC SCIENCE 1 
Biology Physiology and hygiene 

Elementary botany Advanced botany 

Elementary zoology Advanced zoology 

BIOLOGY 

For all high schools that have adequate laboratory equipment and 
teachers of the requisite scientific training, a first year course in 
biology consisting of some study of botany, zoology, and human 
physiology, is recommended. Some of the reasons for such a course 
are as follows: 

i The natural interests of students on entering the high school 
are extensive rather than intensive. Hence, a course in science 
dealing with a wide range of facts appeals to boys and girls more 
strongly than does a more thorough consideration of a smaller 
number of topics. 

2 It is advantageous for students to study both animals and 
plants, because in this way only can the essential processes that 
underlie the phenomena of life be emphasized. 

3 A minimum of 30 lessons in human physiology is required by 
law for the first year. If the study of the human body is pursued 
in connection with elementary botany and zoology, it will be 
possible to treat in a comparative way processes that relate to all 
living organisms. 

High schools that are not prepared to teach such a course in 
biology may conduct a half year course in either botany or zoology 
and a half year course in human physiology. 

The first year courses in biology are designed to give students a 
general conception of the wide range of forms in plant and animal 
life; to lead them to observe the various processes carried on by 
plants and animals, and to study only so much of structure as is 
necessary for a clear comprehension of these processes ; and to help 
them understand the general structure of the human body and the 
way to care for it. 

It is, of course, impossible in 190 lessons to consider with any 
degree of thoroughness the subjects of botany, zoology, and human 
physiology. Hence, an advanced course in either botany or zoology 
is offered to students who are especially interested in biological 
science, or who are preparing to teach nature study in the elemen- 
tary schools, or who wish to present one of these subjects as an 

'The syllabus in biology was prepared at the request of the Education Department by a 
committee selected from the teachers of biology in New York city. 

i°5 



I06 NEW YORK STATE' EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

admission requirement for college or as a preparation for the medi- 
cal school. Unless the student has one of these ends in view, he 
ought to broaden his training by choosing some other science for 
the later years of the course. 

General suggestions relating to first year courses 

The study of botany should precede that of zoology and human 
physiology because material for plant study can be readily obtained 
at all times of the year ; because there is often less objection on the 
part of students when the beginning is made with plants; and 
because human physiology treats of the most specialized type of 
life, and should, therefore, be considered last in the course. 

The physiology of plants, animals and man can be made more 
intelligible by a consideration of the simple principles of physics 
and chemistry. Experiments should, therefore, be performed with 
a few of the common elements and compounds. These experiments 
may come either as an introduction to the subject of botany or 
physiology, or in connection with the various topics to which they 
are most closely related. 

The individual student should, of course, be supplied with a 
specimen of each of the forms studied. It is essential, therefore, 
that teachers of biology be furnished with a certain amount of 
perishable material for botany, zoology, and human physiology. 

So far as possible the experiments in biology should be performed 
by the individual student. Demonstrations of more difficult 
experiments should be made by the teacher. If the pieces of 
apparatus and the dissected specimens used for demonstrations are 
carefully preserved from year to year, each school will in time have a 
valuable permanent equipment of this sort. 

Field work in biology is one of the best methods of arousing 
interest in the subject. This may be conducted by the teacher 
with groups of students in the woods, fields, and parks; or work 
may be carried on by the individual student, and reported to the 
teacher for suggestion and assistance. 

Too much emphasis can not be laid upon the importance of actual 
study of specimens. Textbook study alone of plants and animals 
means the waste of time and energy of student and teacher alike. 
Textbooks should be used, however, to supplement the laboratory 
and field work. Oral recitation is also necessary, for by this means 
attention is called to important facts, and the student is led to see 
things in their proper relations. 



BIOLOGY I07 

Conditions for favorable study of the topics suggested below vary 
widely in different parts of the State. Each teacher should, there- 
fore, select those topics that can be studied to best advantage. The 
order in which the various subjects may be considered is of less 
importance, too, than is the presentation of each at a time when 
satisfactory material can be obtained. 

Notebooks and examinations. A carefully prepared notebook 
is an indispensable part of good laboratory work in biology. This 
laboratory notebook should contain drawings and descriptions of the 
animals and plants studied by the student, together with an account 
of the experiments he has performed or observed. Outline drawings 
with a hard lead pencil are recommended, and each part should be 
carefully labeled. In describing experiments, students should be 
careful to distinguish between observed results and conclusions. If 
the work is recorded on separate sheets of paper, these can be 
arranged in logical order and bound at the end of the course. The 
work in biology furnishes admirable material for expression by 
means of drawings and written composition. Hence, the laboratory 
notebook should be carefully inspected from time to time by the 
teacher to see that it contains accurate descriptions and drawings 
carefully labeled. 

The student should also prepare an index stating the drawings 
made, the experiments performed and the descriptions written in 
his laboratory notebook. After each title in this index he should 
place some mark to indicate whether the work has been done in the 
laboratory or outside the laboratory. This list must not include 
any copied drawings, dictations or abstracts. 

A student taking the Department's examinations must prepare a 
copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer paper 
at the time of the examination. This copy of the index must bear 
(1) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of 
the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the notebook 
based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks must be accessible to the in- 
spectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period 
of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. 

For students who wish to take the examinations set by the De- 
partment four different questions papers in biologic subjects will bo 
prepared, as follows: 

1 A paper for students who have taken the first year course in 
biology (botany, zoology, and human physiology). Students taking 
this course in first year biology should be prepared on the topics 
marked with a * in botany under B (Seeds and seedlings), D (Stems) 



108 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

F (Leaves), G (Flowers), together with the * topics under any four 
of the other six main subdivisions:^ (Introductory experiments in 
chemistry and physics), C (Roots), E (Buds), H (Fruits), / (Algae 
and fungi), J (Mosses and ferns) ; on the topics marked with a * in 
zoology under A (Protozoa), F (Crustacea), G^Insecta), J (Amphibia), 
together with the * topics under any one .of the following seven 
groups of animals: C (Coelenterata) , E (Annelida), H (Mollusca), 
/ (Fishes), K (Reptiles), L (Birds), M (Mammals); and in human 
physiology on the topics marked with a * under A (Introductory 
experiments in chemistry and physics), B (Foods), C (Digestion and 
absorption), D (Blood), E (Circulation), together with the * topics 
under any one of the other seven main subdivisions: F (Skeleton), 
G (Muscles), H (Respiration), / (Skin and kidneys), / (Nervous 
system), K (Special senses), L (Bacteria and sanitation). 

2 A paper for students who have taken a half year course in 
botany. Students that take this course should be prepared to 
answer the questions based upon any of the topics not marked 
optional outlined under B (Seeds and seedlings), D (Stems), F 
(Leaves), G (Flowers), and under any four of the other six main sub- 
divisions : A ( Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics) , 
C (Roots), E (Buds), H (Fruits), / (Algae and fungi),/ (Mosses 
and ferns). 

3 A paper for students who have taken a half year course in 
zoology. Students that take this course should be prepared to 
answer the questions based upon any of the topics not marked 
optional outlined under A (Protozoa), F (Crustacea), G (Insecta), 
J (Amphibia) , and under any four of the following seven groups of 
animals: C (Coelenterata), E (Annelida), H (Mollusca), / (Fishes), 
K (Reptiles), L (Birds), M (Mammals). 

4 A paper for students who have taken a half year course in 
human physiology. Students that take this course should be 
prepared, to answer the questions based upon any of the topics not 
marked optional outlined under A (Introductory experiments in 
chemistry and physics), B (Foods), C (Digestion and absorption), 
D (Blood), E (Circulation), and under any four of the other seven 
main subdivisions: F (Skeleton), G (Muscles), H (Respiration), 
/ (Skin and kidneys), / (Nervous system), K (Special senses), L 
(Bacteria and sanitation). 

The topics marked optional are inserted by way of suggestion for 
possible additional work, but no questions on these topics will appear 
in the examination papers of the Department. 



ELEMENTARY BOTANY KX) 



ELEMENTARY BOTANY 



A Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics. 

These experiments are grouped here for convenience. They 
may be performed either as an introduction to the subject of 
botany, or in connection with the various topics to which they 
are most closely related, 
i Observation of the characteristics of a few of the more common 

chemical elements, e. g. carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, iron. 
2 Study of oxygen and the air. 
*3 Oxidation and the formation of compounds. 

4 (Optional) Tests for acid, alkaline and neutral substances. 

5 (Optional) Experiments to determine favorable and unfavor- 
able conditions for evaporation. 

*6 Test for starch. 
*7 Test for grape sugar. 

*8 Test for nitrogenous substances or proteids. 
*9 Test for fats and oils. 

io (Optional) Test for mineral matters by burning plant tissue. 
B Seeds and seedlings. 

I Dicotyledons. 

i Exterior of fruit and its parts. 

2 Interior of fruit, with arrangement and attachment of con- 
tents. 

*3 Form of seed; coats; explanation of markings on seed. 
Drawings. 

*4 Internal structure of seed; cotyledons, plumule, hypocotyl. 
Drawings. 

*5 Position of stored food; tests for food materials. 

*6 Early stages of seedling to show change in parts of embryo. 
Drawings. 

*7 Method of breaking through the soil. 

*8 Later stages of seedling. Drawings. 

II Monocotyledons (corn). 

i Arrangement of grains on cob ; protection afforded by husk. 

*2 Form of grain; external markings, including silk scar. 
Drawings. 

*3 Internal structure; endosperm, cotyledon, plumule, hypo- 
cotyl. Drawings of sections. 

*4 Position of food; tests for food materials. 

*5 Early stages of seedling to show changes in embryo and 
endosperm. Drawings. 



IIO NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

III Experiments in germination. 

i Rate of growth of seedlings as affected by differences in 

temperature. 
*2 Necessity of air for the germination of seeds and growth of 

seedlings. 
*3 The gas given off by germinating seeds. 
*4 Use of the endosperm of the corn. 

5 The effect of continued darkness upon seedlings. 

6 Seedlings grown at home to determine daily changes in 
various parts. 

IV {Optional) Gymnosperms. 

i Arrangement of seeds in cone. 

2 Exterior of seeds, with adaptations for seed dispersal. 

3 Interior of seeds, relation of embryo and endosperm. Draw- 

ings. 

4 Stages in growth of seedling. Drawings. 

Suggested material for study of seeds and seedlings: bean, pea, 
morning-glory, four-o'clock, castor bean, squash, radish, sun- 
flower; corn, wheat; pine. 
C Roots. 

*i External appearance and internal structure; roothairs 
(position and function) ; rootcap ; region of growth; epidermis, 
cortex, and central cylinder. Drawings. 
* 2 Origin of secondary roots ; adventitious roots. 
*3 Microscopic study of root tip. 
*4 {Optional) Description of specialized types. 
*5 Functions of roots. 

6 {Optional) Tests for foods. 

7 Adaptations to environment. 

8 Experiments to demonstrate: 
*a The process of osmosis. 

*b Response of roots to the force of gravity. 

c Region of most rapid growth in roots. 

d {Optional) Region that is most sensitive to gravity. 

e {Optional) Downward pressure of growing roots. 

/ {Optional) Parts through which liquids rise. 
Suggested material for the study of roots: roots of pea, bean, corn 
and radish seedlings; willow, spiderwort; carrot, parsnip, 
dahlia, sweet potato; water hyacinth, duckweed; ivy, orchid; 
mistletoe, dodder. 



ELEMENTARY BOTANY III 

D Stems. 

i Surface characteristics. 
*a Relative position of bud and leaf scar. 
*b Nodes and internodes 
*c Yearly markings; lenticels. 
d Flower scar. 

e Ruptures of outer layer with explanation. 
*f Drawings of stem. 

2 Internal structure. 

*a Study with hand lens cross-sections of typical dicotyle- 
donous stems; location, description and use of pith, wood, 
medullary rays, cambium, bast, cortex and epidermis. 
Drawings. 

*b Appearance of medullary rays in quarter sawed wood; study 
of woods valuable in commerce. 

*c Cross-section of monocotyledonous stem; location, descrip- 
tion and use of rind, pith, and fibro-vascular bundles. 
Drawings. 

d (Optional) Microscopical study of dicotyledonous and mono- 
cotyledonous stems. 

3 (Optional) Description of specialized types of stems (e. g. 
cactus, honey locust or hawthorn, potato, Solomon's seal or iris, 
hyacinth or onion, myrsiphyllum) . 

4 Adaptations of stems to environment. 
*5 Course of sap through stems. 

6 Experiments. 

a The effect of continued darkness upon stems. 
*b The response stems make to light. 
Suggested material for the study of stems: horse-chestnut, beech, 
linden; corn, rattan, bamboo; morning-glory, grape; cactus, 
honey locust, hawthorn; potato, iris, hyacinth, crocus; myr- 
siphyllum, asparagus. 
E Buds. 
*i Relation to branches, to leaves and to general form of trees. 
*2 Methods of bud protection. 

3 Contents of buds. 

4 Time of formation of buds and of bud opening. 

Suggested material for the study of buds: horse-chestnut, willow, 
tulip tree, sumach or sycamore, spicebush. 
F Leaves. 
*i General structure and parts of dicotyledonous and mono- 
cotyledonous leaves. Drawings. 



112 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

*2 Functions of leaves; photosynthesis, respiration, transpira- 
tion and assimilation. 
*3 Microscopic study of surface of epidermis. 

4 Microscopic study of cross-section; epidermis, air chambers, 
mesophyll, and fibro-vascular bundles. 

5 {Optional) Modifications of leaves; special adaptations of 
leaves to perform their functions. 

6 Experiments to show: 

a The rate of transpiration. 
*b Photosynthesis. 

*c The liberation of a gas by green aquatic plants in sunlight. 
d {Optional) Conditions under which oxygen is given off. 
*e Effect of light on movements of leaves. 
f {Optional) Response of leaves to touch. 
Suggested material lor the study of leaves: apple, holly or moun- 
tain laurel, beech; rose, pea, clover or oxalis; corn; pine; 
tropaeolum, hydrangea, elodea, rubber plant ; sundew, pitcher 
plant, venus flytrap. 
G Flowers. 
*i Gross structure and function of all parts. Drawings. 
*2 Location and structure of ovules and pollen; the process of 

fertilization ; development of ovule into seed. 
*3 Methods of securing pollination. 

4 {Optional) Types of inflorescence. 

5 Recognition of common flowering plants. 

Suggested material for the study of flowers: buttercup, cherry or 
cinquefoil, tulip, gladiolus, evening primrose, syringa, bou- 
vardia, mountain laurel, jack-in-the-pulpit, snapdragon, butter- 
and-eggs, pansy, sweet pea, white daisy, golden-rod. (Wild 
flowers have not been included to any extent in this list, be- 
cause of the danger that their use in the large classes of city 
high schools might hasten the extinction of many species.) 
H Fruits. 
*i Origin of fruit from flower. 

2 Distinctions between seeds and fruits. 
*3 Types of fruits ; external and internal structure. Drawings. 
*4 Adaptations for seed dispersal. 
Suggested materialior the study of fruits: maple, elm, linden, pine, 
cocklebur, stick-tights, pea, bean, peanuts, dandelion, milk- 
weed, oats, wheat, lotus, jimson weed, various kinds of fleshy 
fruits. 



ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 113 

/ Algae and fungi. 

*i Spirogyra or Zygnema. 

Color, form, structure; cell contents; life history. Drawings. 

2 Yeast plant or bread mould. 

*a Form, color, structure, reproduction; economic importance. 

Drawings. 
b Experiments to determine favorable conditions for the 

growth of fungi. 

3 (Optional) Nitella. 
Protoplasmic movements. 

4 (Optional) Nostoc or Oscillatoria. 

Habitat; adaptations to environment; color, form and structure 
of colony; reproduction. Drawings. 

5 (Optional) Fucus. 

Form, color, structure; habitat; adaptations to environment. 
Drawings. 

6 (Optional) Sac fungi (Microsphaera) . 

Description of ripened fruit, and its relation to the mycelium 
ascus and ascospores; economic importance. 

7 (Optional) Rusts and smuts (wheat rust and corn smut). 
Economic importance. 

8 (Optional) Mushroom or shelf fungus. 
Habitat; description; economic importance. 

9 (Optional) Lichens (Physcia or Cladonia). 
Description and structure. 

/ Mosses and ferns. 
*i Study of a moss (Polytrichum or Funaria). 
a General appearance, parts. Drawings. 
b Degree of differentiation of sexual and asexual generations. 
Reproductive organs, fertilization; life history. 
*2 Study of a fern (Polypodium or Nephrolepis). 

a Degree of differentiation of parts, description of each, includ- 
ing sori. Drawing. 
b Life history, including laboratory study of prothallus, sporo- 
phyte, sporangia and spores. 

ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 
A Protozoa. 

I Amoeba or Paramoecium. 

*i Form of animal; cell body (cytoplasm); nucleus; cilia or 

pseudodia; contractile vacuole. Drawing. 

2 (Optional) Ectoplasm; en doplasm; food balls; water vacuoles; 

micronucleus. 



114 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

*3 Feeding; locomotion; function of contractile vacuoles; 
respiration; elimination of solid waste; reproduction by 
fission; habitat. 

4 Digestion; assimilation; growth. 
II Related topics. 

i Comparison of Amoeba with a ciliate form. 

2 Protozoa as food for higher forms. 

3 {Optional) Foraminifera and chalk formation. 
*4 The cell as a structural and physiological unit. 

5 Conjugation in certain protozoa. 
B {Optional) Porifera. 

I Grantia or Leucosolenia. 

i Shape; attachment; osculum. Drawing. 

2 Cloaca; pores; canals; skeleton. Drawing. 

3 Methods of feeding; breathing; excretion. 

4 Reproduction; life history. 

5 Differentiation in character of cells. 
II Related topics. 

i Commercial sponge: character of skeleton; collection and 
preparation for market ; incurrent pores ; cloaca ; oscula. 

2 Habitat of sponges. 

3 Spongilla, or other fresh-water sponges. 
C Coelenterata. 

I Hydra or Sea anemone. 
*i Shape; external parts. Drawing. 

2 Experiments to determine the action of the column and the 
tentacles. 

3 Ingestion of food (in case the living sea anemone is used). 
*4 Respiration; excretion; mode of locomotion. 

*5 Reproduction. 

*6 Method of obtaining food; digestive cavity. 

7 {Optional) Structure of body wall. 
*8 Habitat ; means of protection. 
II Related topics. 

*i Recognition of coral; sea anemone; medusae; hydroids. 

2 {Optional) Study of a medusa. Drawing. 

3 Alternation of generations in hydroids. 
*4 Economic importance of corals. 

D {Optional) Echinodermata. 
I Starfish. 

i Form ; radial symmetry ; spines ; branchiae (gills) ; madre- 
porite, mouth; ambulacral areas ; movable spines ; tube feet. 
Drawing. 



ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 115 

2 Nerve ring; radial nerves; eye-spot. 

3 Mode of locomotion and feeding; respiratory, digestive, 
water vascular and reproductive system. 

4 Habitat; adaptations for protection; economic importance. 

5 Distinct body cavity; three layers of cells in body wall; 
skeleton. 

II Related topics. 

1 Recognition of such forms as sea urchins ; brittle stars ; sand 
dollars. 
E Annelida. 
I Earthworm. 
*i General form; differences between anterior and posterior 

ends ; differences between dorsal and ventral surfaces. 
*2 Segmentation; bilateral symmetry; setae (bristles). 
*3 Situation of mouth ; "lip"; vent. 

4 (Optional) Girdle; one pair of the reproductive openings. 
*5 Experiments: flow of blood in dorsal and ventral blood 
vessels; methods of locomotion; degree of sensitiveness in 
different parts of the body. 
*6 Drawing of exterior. 
7 (Optional) Parts of alimentary canal, and function of each; 
circulatory system ; nervous system ; nephridia and excretion. 
Drawing. 
*8 Respiration; mode of feeding. 
*9 Economic importance. 
10 (Optional) Life history. 
II Related topics. 

1 (Optional) Brief comparison of sandworm and earthworm. 
*2 Life history of the tapeworm and trichina. 

F Crustacea. 

I Crayfish or lobster. 
*i Regions; structure of abdomen; swimmerets; carapace; 
legs ; mouth parts (especially second maxillae and mandibles) ; 
antennae; stalked eyes; form, function and attachment of 
gills. Drawings. 

2 Vent; opening of green glands; mouth. 

3 (Optional) Comparison of structure of appendages. 

*4 Experiments with the crayfish to determine the methods of 
locomotion; action of eyestalks; action of the gill bailer; 
use of antennae and pincers. 

*5 Habitat; habits; protective coloration. 



Il6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

6 (Optional) Structure and function of the stomach, in- 
testine and "liver," heart and main blood vessels; blood and 
circulation ; nervous system. Drawings. 
II Related topics. 

*i Economic importance of decapods; molting; recognition of 
several decapods. 
2 (Optional) Comparison of crab and crayfish. 
G Insecta. 

I Locust (short horned grasshopper). 
*i Regions; kinds of appendages found on each. 
*2 The number, structure and connection of the segments of 

the abdomen. 
*3 Spiracles ; tympanic membrane ; ovipositor. 
*4 Divisions of thorax; number, situation and structure of legs 

and wings. 
*5 Compound and simple eyes; antennae; mandibles. 
6 (Optional) Study of the cornea of compound eye under the 
microscope. 
*7 Drawings. 

*8 Experiments: methods of locomotion; manner of eating 
and drinking; breathing. 
9 General structure of tracheae. 
*io Economic importance of the grasshopper and of other mem- 
bers of the same order. 
*n Life history. 

*i2 Recognition of crickets, grasshopper (long horned), cock- 
roaches ; walking sticks. 
II Related topics. 

*i Structure of a bee and a butterfly compared with that of the 
grasshopper to bring out similarities and differences; life 
history; habitat; economic importance of bee, silkworm, 
and destructive caterpillars. 

2 Drawings of bee and butterfly. 

3 (Optional) Structure of a bettle, a fly, and a bug compared 
with that of the grasshopper; life history; habitat; econ- 
omic importance. 

*4 Cross pollination of flowers ; protective coloration. 
5 General principles of classification. 
H Mollusca. 

I One of the following: fresh-water mussel, soft-shelled clam, 
hard-shelled clam. 
*i Bivalve shell; hinge; umbo; lines of growth. Drawing. 



ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY . WJ 

*2 Mantle; siphons; gills; labial palps; foot; abdomen; ad- 
ductor muscles. Drawing. 
3 {Optional) Heart; intestine; location of liver and kidneys. 
*4 Experiments: action of cilia of gills and palps; currents in 

and out of the siphons; pulsation of heart. 
*5 Respiration; food getting; locomotion. 
II Related topics. 

*i Recognition of oysters, clams, snails, slugs, scallops. 
*2 Economic importance of mollusca. 

3 {Optional) Study of a live' snail to determine tentacles and 
their action; eyes; creeping disk; method of feeding and 
creeping. 

*4 Habitat of the mollusca studied. 
/ Fishes. 

I Perch, goldfish or any bony fish of fair size. 

*i Shape; regions; situation of eyes; absence of eyelids; 
external parts of the eye; number and situation of the 
nostrils; demonstration to show that nostrils do not lead to 
the mouth; gill cover; number, situation and structure of 
the fins; scales. Drawing. 

*2 Situation and shape of teeth; tongue; opening into gullet; 
color, number, situation and structure of gills. 

*3 Experiments to demonstrate the means of locomotion; 
movements of the eyes; feeding; respiration. 

4 {Optional) Shape, situation and function of the parts of the 
digestive system; the heart and blood vessels leading to the 
gills; blood and circulation; brain with nerves to nostrils 
and eyes; spinal cord. Drawing. 

II Related topics. 

*i Recognition of several kinds of bony fishes. 
*2 Economic importance of fishes. 
3 {Optional) Life history of bony fishes ; care of young. 
J Amphibia. 
I Frog or toad. 
*i Regions; situation, and external parts of the eyes; eyelids; 
tympanic membrane; nostrils; mouth; front and hind legs, 
with parts of each ; character and color of skin. Drawing. 
*2 Opening to mouth cavity from nostrils; Eustachian tubes; 
position and character of the teeth; shape, attachment, and 
action of tongue; glottis. 
*3 Position, shape and function of the parts of the digestive 
system; the kidneys and the lungs; the heart and its parts; 
i arterial trunk and its branches. Drawings. 



Il8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

4 Blood, with study of corpuscles; brief account of entire 
circulation. 

5 {Optional) Brain and its parts; olfactory and optic nerves; 
spinal cord. Drawings. 

*6 Life history; habits; means of protection. 
*7 Experiments to demonstrate the various methods of loco- 
motion; method of getting air into the lungs; action of 
eyes and movements of eyelids; circulation in web of frog's 
foot or in tadpole's tail. 
II Related topics. 
*i Recognition of salamanders, newts, toads and frogs. 

2 {Optional) General characteristics of amphibia. 
*3 Habitat of various forms; economic importance of frogs 
and toads. 
K Reptiles. 

I Lizard or turtle. 
*i Regions; eyes and eyelids; nostrils; ears; the shell and its 
function (in case the turtle is used) ; number and parts of the 
legs; scales. Drawing. 
*2 Position and character of the teeth (or beak of turtle) ; 

shape and attachment of tongue. 
*3 Experiments to demonstrate: methods of locomotion; 
manner of eating and drinking; movement of eyes and eye- 
lids; respiratory movements; withdrawal into shell of tail, 
head and legs of turtle. 
II Related topics. 
*i Recognition of turtles, lizards, alligators and snakes. 

2 {Optional) Habitat and life history of reptiles ; hibernation. 
*3 Economic importance of reptiles ; poisonous reptiles. 
L Birds. 

I Pigeon or English sparrow. 
*i External parts of eyes; eyelids; position of nostrils; beak; 
location of ears; parts of legs and wings; extent of wing 
surface; arrangement of the larger feathers on the wings 
and tail; scales on legs. Drawings of head and leg. 
*2 Experiments to demonstrate: methods of eating and drink- 
ing; respiratory movements; action of eyes and eyelids; 
methods of locomotion; perching. 
*3 Shape and attachment of tongue; absence of teeth. 
4 {Optional) Structure and function of the parts of the diges- 
tive system; situation and function of the lungs and air sacs; 
the significance of hollow bones; the heart and its parts; 
circulation. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE [10, 

II Related topics. 
*i Recognition of common birds; nest building, and care of 

young. 
*2 Economic importance of birds in destroying harmful insects 

and other animals; protection of birds. 
*3 Life history; migration; molting; bird songs. 

4 Structural adaptations of birds for flying, such as shape of 
body, powerful pectoral muscles, great surface of wings, 
-iructure and arrangement of feathers on wings, air sacs, 
hollow bones. 

5 (Optional) Special structural adaptations of birds for swim- 
ming, perching, scratching, wading, climbing, and preying 
upon other animals. 

M Mammals. 

I Rabbit, cat, squirrel, or any available mammal. 

*i Regions; eyes and their external parts; shape, size and 
position of ears; nostrils; parts of legs; differences between 
the front and hind legs ; characteristics of hair. 

*2 Experiments to determine: methods of locomotion and 
of obtaining food. 

*3 Kinds of teeth, and the use of each. 
4 Skeleton : spinal column ; skull ; ribs ; girdles ; bones in legs ; 
brief comparison, with human skeleton. 

II Related topics. 

*i Recognition of common animal belonging to the same 
order as the one studied; economic importance. 

*2 The comparative study of two prominent additional orders 
of mammals ; the common animals in each order ; structural 
characteristics common to the animals of each order ; habits ; 
habitat; food; economic importance. (The Rodents, Car- 
nivora and Ungulates are suggested.) 
3 (Optional) A demonstration of the internal organs of some 
mammal used as food; heart and principal blood vessels; 
stomach and intestines; kidneys; lungs; brain and spinal 
cord. The function of these parts should be taken up in con- 
nection with the study of their structure. 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

A Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics. 

If plant study precedes human physiology, most of these ex- 
periments should be performed in connection with the study of 
plants. 



1:20 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

*i Observation of the characteristics of a few simple chemical 

elements, e. g. carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, iron. 
*2 Study of oxygen and the air. 
*3 Oxidation, and the formation of compounds. 
*4 Tests for acid, alkaline and neutral substances. 
*5 The principles of osmosis. 
*6 Test for starch. 
*7 Test for grape sugar. 

*8 Test for nitrogenous substances or proteids. 
*9 Test for fats or oils. 
10 {Optional) Test for mineral substances by burning foods. 

B Foods. 

*i Necessity for foods. 

*2 Nutrients (food principles) present in various common foods. 
3 (Optional) How plants manufacture food. 
*4 Adulterations in food and impurities in water. 
*5 Uses of the nutrients (water, starch, sugar, proteids, fats, 
mineral matters). 

6 Relative value of common foods for fuel, growth and repair. 

7 Principles involved in cooking of foods. 

8 Economy in purchase and use of foods; daily diet. 
*9 Discussion of stimulants and narcotics. 

C Digestion and absorption. 

*i Position, general structure and functions of the parts of the 

alimentary canal, and of the principal digestive glands. 
*2 Kinds of teeth; structure and care of the teeth. 
*3 Experiment to show digestion of starch. 
*4 Functions of saliva and of gastric juice. 

5 Functions of bile and pancreatic juice. 
*6 Absorption of food into the blood. 

*7 Hygienic habits of eating; the causes and prevention of dys- 
pepsia. 
*8 Effect of alcohol on digestion. 

9 (Optional) Microscopic structure of parts of the alimentary 

canal and of glands, 
io (Optional) Composition of digestive juices. 
ii (Optional) Stages in the process of swallowing. 

12 Experiments to show digestion of fat, proteid, and mineral 
matters. 

13 (Optional) Study of teeth, tongue, stomach, and intestines 
of other animals (e. g. dog, rabbit, sheep, chicken). 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 121 

D Blood. 

*i General structure of blood; corpuscles and their functions; 

plasma and its uses. 
*2 Clotting of blood. 
*3 Quantity of blood and its distribution in the body. 

4 {Optional) Microscopic study of blood corpuscles of man and 
of other animals. 

5 Effect of food, fresh air, and rest on corpuscles and plasma. 

6 {Optional) Study of color, temperature, and chemical com- 
position of blood of other animals. 

E Circulation. 

*i Position, shape, size, protection of the heart. 

*2 Chambers of the heart; valves of the heart and their action; 
the blood vessels connected with each chamber of the heart. 

*3 Position, gross structure, and use of arteries, veins and capil- 
laries. 

4 Sounds of the heart; cause of pulse; variations in pulse rate. 
*5 General course of blood in pulmonary and systemic (includ- 
ing portal) circulation. 

*6 Changes in the composition of blood as it passes through 
various organs of the body (walls of alimentary canal, lungs, 
muscles, kidneys, skin). 

*7 The lymph; its composition and uses. 

8 {Optional) The lymphatic system. 

9 Effect of exercise on the circulation. 
*io Treatment of cuts and bruises. 

*n Effects of alcohol on circulation. 

12 {Optional) Regulation of blood supply to various organs of 
the body; congestions and inflammations. 

1 3 {Optional) Study of circulation of other animals (e. g. earth- 
worm, frog, bird, mammal). 

F Skeleton, 

*i General structure and uses of the spinal column, ribs, ster- 
num, bones of arm, leg, pectoral and pelvic girdles. 

2 {Optional) Structure of a typical vertebra and of atlas and 
axis. 

3 Adaptations shown in the skull for protection of nervous 
system and organs of special sense. 

*4 Gross internal structure of a long bone and of a rib. 

5 Chemical composition of bone. 

*6 Gross structure and action of ball-and-socket and of hinge 
joints. 



122 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

7 Fractures, dislocations, sprains; hygiene of the skeleton. 

8 Differences as to composition and structure between the 
skeleton of a child and of an adult. 

9 {Optional) Comparative study of the skeletons of various 
animals in the museums. 

G Muscles. 

*i The uses of voluntary and involuntary muscle tissue. 

*2 Arrangement of voluntary muscles and their gross structure. 

3 {Optional) Microscopic structure of muscle. 

4 Blood and nerve supply to muscles. 

*5 Necessity of food, fresh air, exercise and rest for healthy 
muscle. 

6 {Optional) Use of muscles in standing, walking and running. 

7 {Optional) Structure and uses of involuntary muscles in 
organs of digestion and circulation. 

8 {Optional) Comparative study of the methods of locomotion 
of various animals. 

H Respiration. 

*i Necessity for respiration. 

*2 General structure and functions of the air passages, lungs, 
and chest cavity ; action of the ribs and diaphragm in caus- 
ing enlargement of chest cavity. 

*3 Changes in air and blood in the lungs. 

*4 Hygienic habits of breathing; effect of exercise; tight clothing 
and respiration; suffocation and artificial respiration. 

*5 Proper methods of ventilation, and of sweeping and dusting. 

6 {Optional) Diseases of the respiratory organs. 

7 {Optional) Comparative study of respiration in various 
animals. 

/ Skin and kidneys. 

*i Layers of the skin; hair, nails, and glands of the skin; general 

structure and uses. 
*2 Importance of cleanliness. 
*3 Treatment of burns. 

4 {Optional) Microscopic structure of the skin. 

5 {Optional) Comparative study of the exoskeletons of differ- 
ent kinds of animals. 

6 Position and gross structure of the kidneys. 

7 Changes in blood in the kidneys. 
J Nervous system. 

*i General functions of the nervous system. 



ADVANCED BOTANY 123 

2 (Optional) Structure and functions of the nervous system 

of the frog as 'an introduction to the study of the human 
nervous system. 
*3 Gross structure and functions of the brain, spinal cord, and 
nerves. 

4 Demonstration of microscopical structure of nerve cells and 

fibers of the spinal cord. 

5 (Optional) Principal cranial nerves; origin, distribution and 

functions. 
*6 Necessity of food, fresh air, and rest for the healthy activity 
of the nervous system. Effect of alcohol on nerve functions. 

7 (Optional) Functions of the sympathetic nervous system. 

8 (Optional) Comparative study of the nervous system of 

various animals. 
K Special senses. 

*i Organs and sensations of touch, taste and smell. 

*2 The eye; its form, protection, principal parts and their uses; 

sensations of sight; care of the eyes. 

3 The external, middle and internal ear (general structure only) ; 

sensations of sound; care of the ears. 

4 (Optional) Sensations of temperature, pain, hunger and 

thirst. 

5 (Optional) Comparative study of the sense organs of other 

animals. 
L Bacteria and sanitation. 

*i Changes due to the growth of bacteria (souring of milk, de- 
composition etc.). 
*2 Diseases due to bacteria; methods of sterilizing wounds; the 
prevention of disease (methods of disinfection, quarantine, 
immunity). 
3 Municipal sanitation: water supply and drainage; work of 
the board of health and of department of street cleaning. 

ADVANCED BOTANY 1 

A student should be qualified by laboratory work, demonstrations, 
and by the use of textbooks to answer questions on all the topics 
in the syllabus excepting those marked Optional. He should also 
prepare an indexed laboratory notebook in which stress is to be 
laid upon accurate drawings and precise expressive descriptions. 

'The syllabus in advanced botany is based upon the report of the committee on botany of 
the science departnunt of ths National Educational Association, modified by a committee of 
the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology. 



124 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

This notebook should contain (i) laboratory work to illustrate fairly 
completely at least the following six main topics as outlined below 
under A (Anatomy and morphology) ; The seed, The shoot, The root, 
The flower, The fruit, and The cell) ; (2) records of at least 1 5 physio- 
logical experiments illustrating as many as possible of the seven 
main topics outlined under B (Physiology), but at least the first 
four; (3) carefully labeled drawings of forms to illustrate at least the 
following groups of plants (see part II below) : two types of algae 
(preferably Pleurococcus to show method of growth to four celled 
stage, and detailed study of Spirogyra), three types of fungi (pre- 
ferably bacteria to show shape and motion, yeast to show method 
of reproduction, and mucor to show mycelium and reproduction), 
one type of Bryophytes (preferably a moss), two types of Pterido- 
phytes (a true fern with its prothallus, and one other type, pre- 
ferably Selaginella) , and representatives of six families of Angio- 
sperms. It is difficult to outline satisfactory notebook require- 
ments in ecology. This branch of botany should, however, form 
a part of every good course, and clear accounts of field trips should 
appear in the notebook. In rating the notebook, no credit will be 
given for dictated work, lecture notes, or drawings copied from 
charts and textbooks. Work done outside the laboratory should 
be marked home work. 

A student taking the Department's examination must prepare a 
copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer paper 
at the time of the examination. This copy of the index must bear 
(1) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract 
of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the notebook 
based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to colleges as 
a part of the entrance requirements, must be accessible to the in- 
spectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period 
of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. 

Part I The general principles of (a) anatomy and morphology, 
(b) physiology and (c) ecology 

A In anatomy and morphology. 

The seed. Four types (dicotyledon without and with endosperm, 
a monocotyledon and a gymnosperm) ; structure and homo- 
logous parts. Food supply; experimental determination of its 
nature and value. Phenomena of germination and growth of 
embryo into a seedling (including bursting from the seed, as- 
sumption of position and unfolding of parts). 



ADVANCED BOTANY 1 25 

The shoot. Gross anatomy of a typical shoot, including the 
relationship of position of leaf, stem (and root), the arrange- 
ment of leaves and buds on the stem, and deviations (through 
light adjustment, etc.) from symmetry. Buds, and the mode 
of origin of new leaf and stem; winter buds in particular. 

Specialized and metamorphosed shoots (stems and leaves). 
General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the 
shoot; annual growth; shedding of bark and leaves. 

The root. Gross anatomy ot a typical root; position and origin 
of secondary roots; hair zone, cap and growing point. 

Specialized and metamorphosed roots. (Optional) General 
structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the root. 

The flower. Structure of a typical flower especially of ovule and 
pollen; functions of the parts. Comparative morphological 
study of at least three marked types, with the construction of 
transverse and longitudinal diagrams (preferably a tulip 
or other lily, Fuchsia or Oenothera, and sweet pea or other 
member of pea family). 

The fruit. Structure of a typical fruit, especially with reference 
to changes from the flower, and from ovule to seed. (Optional) 
Comparative morphological study of six or more marked types, 
with diagrams. 

This comparative morphological study of flowers and fruits 
may advantageously be postponed to the end of II, and then 
taken up in connection with classification of the Angiosperms. 

The cell. Cytoplasm, nucleus, sap cavity, wall. Adaptive modi- 
fications of walls, formation of tissues. 

As to the study of the cell, it is by no means to be postponed 
for consideration by itself after the other topics, as its position 
in the above outline may seem to imply, but it is to be brought 
in earlier along with the study of the shoot or root, and con- 
tinued from topic to topic. Although enough study of the 
individual cell is to be made to give an idea of its structure — a 
study which may very advantageously be associated with the 
physiological topics first mentioned under B — the principal 
microscopical work should consist in the recognition and in the 
study of the distribution of the leading tissues. 
B In physiology. 

Role of water in the plant: absorption (osmosis) , path of transfer, 
transpiration, turgidity and its mechanical value, plasmolysis. 

Photosynthesis: dependence of starch formation upon chlorophyll, 
light and carbon dioxid; evolution of oxygen, observation of 
starch grains. 



126 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Respiration: necessity for oxygen in growth, evolution of carbon 

dioxid. 
Digestion: digestion of starch with diastase, and its role in trans- 
location of foods. 
Irritability: geotropism, heliotropism and hydrotropism; {Op- 
tional) nature of stimulus and response. 
Growth: localization in higher plants; {Optional) amount in 

germinating seeds and stems; relationship to temperature. 
Fertilization; sexual and vegetative reproduction. 

Although for convenience of reference, the physiological 
topics are here grouped together, they should by no means be 
studied by themselves and apart from anatomy and morphol- 
. ogy. On the contrary, they should be taken up along with the 
study of the structures in which the processes occur, and which 
they help to explain; thus, photosynthesis should be studied 
with the leaf, as should also transpiration, while digestion may 
best come with germination, osmotic absorption with the root, 
and so on. The student should either try, or at least aid in 
trying, experiments to demonstrate the fundamental processes 
indicated above. 
C In ecology. 

Modifications (metamorphoses) of parts for special functions. 
Dissemination. 
Cross-pollination. 

Light relations of green tissues; leaf mosaics. 
{Optional) Plant societies; mesophytes, hydrophytes, halo- 
phytes, xerophytes; climbers, epiphytes, parasites (and sapro- 
phytes), insectivores. 
{Optional) Plant associations, and zonal distribution. 

The topics in ecology (particularly the first four and in part 
the fifth) like those in physiology, are to be studied not by them- 
selves, but along with the structures with which they are most 
closely connected, as cross-pollination with the flower, dissemina- 
tion with the seed, etc. The fifth and sixth may most advan- 
tageously be studied with G in part II. 

In this connection field work is of great importance, and for 
some topics, such as the sixth, is indispensable, though much 
maybe done also with potted plants in greenhouses ,photographs, 
and museum specimens. It is strongly recommended that some 
systematic field work be considered as an integral part of the 
course, coordinate in definiteness and value as far as it goes with 
the laboratory work. The temptations to haziness and guessing 
in ecology must be combated. 



ADVANCED BOTANY 1 27 

Part II The natural history of the plant groups, and classification. 

A comprehensive summary of the great natural groups of plants, 
based upon the thorough study of the structure, reproduction and 
adaptations to habitat of one or two types from each group, sup- 
plemented and extended by more rapid study of other forms in 
those groups. Where living material is wanting for the latter, 
preserved material and even good pictures may be used, and a 
standard textbook should be thoroughly read. The general homol- 
ogies from group to group should be noted. 

In general in this part of the course much less attention should 
be given to the lower and inconspicuous groups, and progressively 
more to the higher and conspicuous forms. 

Following is a list of recommended types from which, or their 
equivalents, selection may be made: 
A Algae. 

Pleurococcus, Spirogyra, Vaucheria, including zoosporic stage. 
Fucus. 

(Optional) Batrachospernum. 
B Fungi. 

Bacteria, mucor, yeast, Puccinia (or any powdery mildew). (Op- 
tional) Mushroom. 

Bacteria and yeast have obvious disadvantages in such a 

course, but their great economic importance may justify their 

introduction. 
C Lichens. 

Physcia (or Parmelia). 
D Bryophytes. 

In Hepaticae, Frullaria (or Radula or Porella or Marchantia). 

In Musci, Mnium (or Funaria or Poly tri chum) . 
E Pteridophytes. 

In Filicineae, Aspidium or equivalent, including, of course, the 
prothallus. 

(Optional) In Equesetineae, Equisetum. 

In Lycopodineae, Selaginella (or Isoetes). (Optional) Lycopo- 

dium. 
F Gymnosperms. 

Pinus or equivalent. 
G Angiosperms. 

A monocotyledon and a dicotyledon, to be studied with reference 

to the homologies of their parts with those in the above groups ; 

together with representative plants of six of the leading sub- 
divisions and principal families of angiosperms (preferably 



128 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Liliaceae, Rosaceae or Ranunculaceae, Violaceae, Labiatae, 
Leguminosae, Compositae). 

Classification should include a study of the primary subdivisions 
of the above groups, based on the comparison of the types with 
other (preferably) living or preserved material. The principal 
subdivision of the Angiosperms, grouped on the Engler and Prantl 
system, should be understood. 

The ability to use manuals for the determination of the species 
of flowering plants is not considered essential in this course, though 
it is desirable. It should not be introduced to the exclusion of 
any part of the course, but may well be made voluntary work for 
those showing a taste for it. It should not be limited to learning 
names of plants, but should be made a study in the plan of classi- 
fication as well. 

The preparation of an herbarium is not required nor recommend- 
ed, except as voluntary work for those with a taste for collecting. 
If made, it should not constitute a simple accumulation of species, 
but should represent some distinct idea of plant associations, or 
of morphology, or of representation of the groups, etc. 

ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 1 

A student should be qualified by laboratory work, demonstra- 
tions, and by the use of textbooks to answer questions on all the 
topics in the syllabus excepting those marked Optional. He should 
also prepare an indexed laboratory notebook in which stress is to 
be laid upon accurate drawings and precise expressive descriptions. 
This notebook should contain outline drawings, carefully labeled, 
of the external and internal structure of a protozoan, a coelenter- 
ate, an annelid, a decapod crustacean, and a vertebrate [see C 
below], together with labeled drawings of the external structure of 
at least three other animals (preferably an insect, a mollusk, and 
a second vertebrate). The laboratory book should also contain 
carefully prepared notes on the forms enumerated above, and 
descriptions of other animals used for demonstrations [see A below.] 
In rating the notebook no credit will be given for dictated work, 
lecture notes, or drawings copied from charts and textbooks. 
Work done outside the laboratory should be marked home work. 

A student taking the Department's examinations must prepare 
a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer 
paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index 

'The syllabus in advanced zoology is based upon the report of a committee of the American 
Society of Zoologists, Eastern Branch. 



ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 120, 

must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true 
abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the 
notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted 
to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement, must be accessible 
to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the Department for 
a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. 
The following outline includes the principles of zoology that 
are indispensable to a general survey of the science. It is not 
intended to indicate the order of study of the topics; this must 
be left to the teacher and the textbook. 

A The general natural history — including external structure in 
relation to adaptations, life histories, geographical range, rela- 
tions to other animals and to plants, and economic relations — of 
common vertebrates and invertebrates so far as representatives 
of these groups are obtainable in the locality where the course 
is given. (The types suggested are a mammal, bird, lizard, snake, 
turtle, newt, frog, dogfish (or other shark), bony fish, clam, snail, 
common crustaceans, spiders, myriapods, insects representing at 
least five orders, starfish, earthworm, hydra, sea anemone, Para- 
mecium.) Actual examination of these common animals should 
be supplemented by reading giving natural history ' information 
about them and their relatives. 1 It is not expected that there 
will be time for making extensive notebook records of this natural 
history work. So far as time permits, drawings should be made 
and notes written, but most of the work along this line should take 
the form of laboratory demonstrations. 
B The classification of animals into phyla and leading classes 
(except the modern subdivisions of the worms) and the great 
characteristics of these groups. In the case of insects and ver- 
tebrates the characteristics of the orders. The teaching of classi- 
fication should be by practical work so as to train the pupil to 
recognize animals and to point out the chief taxonomic 
characteristics. The meaning of species, genera and larger 
groups should be developed by constructive practical work 
with representatives of insect or vertebrate orders. 
C The general plan of internal structure, not the anatomical min- 
utiae, of one vertebrate (preferably frog or fish) in general com- 
parison with human body ; an arthropod (preferably a decapod) ; 
an annelid (earthworm or Nereis) ; a coelenterate (hydroid, hydra 
or sea anemone) ; a protozoon (a ciliate, and amoeba when pos- 

'A large part of this natural history information will be gained from the nature study 
of the elementary school and from the course given in the first year of high school. 



130 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

sible). In place of any of above types not locally available 
there may be substituted a second vertebrate, a mollusk, an 
insect or an echinoderm. The functions of the chief tissues and 
their positions in the body of a vertebrate should be pointed out. 
(Optional) Tissues should be examined first with the unaided 
eye, in such a structure as a frog's leg, and then with a micro- 
scope a demonstration should be given of the relations of cells and 
intercellular substance in epithelium and cartilage, and if possible 
in other tissues. 
D (1) The general physiology of above types, involving the es- 
sentials of digestion, absorption, circulation (respiration), cell- 
metabolism, secretion, excretion and nervous functions. This 
should apply comparatively the essentials of elementary work 
in human physiology. Demonstrations and experiments, such 
as are suggested in high school textbooks on human physiology, 
should be introduced, or recalled if not previously well presented 
in elementary physiology, in connection with the discussion of 
the chief functions. So far as practicable structure and function 
should be studied together. 
(2) (Optional) Comparison of the general life processes in ani- 
mals and plants (in connection with botany if zoology is first 
studied) . 
E The very general features of asexual reproduction of a proto- 
zoon (preferably Paramoecium) ; alternations of generations in 
hydroids; reproduction and regeneration of Hydra; the very 
general external features of embryological development in a 
fish or frog; and the most interesting features of development 
in the case of other animals studied. (Optional) The general 
cellular nature (not centrosomes and the like) of germ cells, fer- 
tilization and cell division in developing eggs should, so far as 
possible, be demonstrated and briefly described. 
F The prominent evidences of relationship, suggesting evolution, 
within such groups as the decapods, the insects and the verte- 
brates, should be demonstrated. A few facts indicating the 
struggle for existence, adaptation to environment, variations of 
individuals and man's selective influence should be pointed out; 
but the factors of evolution and the discussion of its theories 
should not be attempted. 
G (Optional) Some leading facts regarding the epoch-making 
discoveries of biological history and the careers of such eminent 
naturalists as Darwin, Huxley, Pasteur and Agassiz should be 
presented. 



ADVANCED ZOOLOGY I3I 

The above outline of a course in general zoology should be de- 
veloped on the basis of a course of laboratory study guided by 
definite directions. This should be supplemented by the careful 
reading of at least one modern elementary textbook in general 
zoology. 



GROUP 3 (concluded) 
Physical geography Agriculture 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

This syllabus has been prepared after repeated conferences with 
some of the best known teachers of physical geography in high 
school, normal school and university, who on urgent request have 
courteously contributed suggestion, advice and material. 

The outline is intended to suggest work for 190 class exercises 
and in conformity to general opinion is expressed quite in detail as 
few schools have hitherto assigned the subject for a year course. 
It is not expected that teachers will place equal emphasis on all the 
divisions or that students on completing the course will be equally 
familiar with all the topics. Such parts of astronomy and of 
geology as are more closely related to the subject and are thought 
more suitable for students in secondary schools are included. 
As some schools will offer the subject in the second year and others 
in the fourth year, two sizes of type are used, matter in large type 
being more essential and sufficient for a satisfactory second year 
course which meets the college entrance requirements, while that 
in small type may be introduced into a more thorough course given 
in the fourth year. 

In view of the recommendation of the N. E. A. committee 
it is suggested that as much time be devoted to the study 
of the land as is devoted to the study of the rest of the subject 
herein outlined. At every step the relation of man to the topic 
under consideration and the manner in which he is affected by it 
should be carefully noted as this is the important aspect of the 
study. It is thought that not less than one class exercise with its 
accompanying study period, consecutive if possible, should be 
devoted each week to laboratory work. In this time the student 
should perform exercises having an aggregate value of at least 40 
selected from a list not essentially different from the one given. 
It is suggested that the class accompanied by the teacher make 
field excursions to the number of not less than four in the fall and 
four in the spring. 

The results of laboratory and field work with the dates should be 
carefully recorded by the student in a notebook, of which an 
accurate index should be prepared by the student. 

A student taking the Department's examination must prepare a 
copy of this index and attach it to his answer paper at the time 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 133 

of the examination. This copy of the index must bear the teacher's 
indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's 
work, and the teacher's rating of the notebook based upon a scale 
of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to colleges as a part of the 
entrance requirement, must be accessible to the inspectors and be 
subject to the call of the Department for a period of six months 
subsequent to the completion of the course. 

The earth as a planet 

I Origin. 

1 Nebular hypothesis, planetesimal theory. 1 

2 Solar system: sun, planets, planetoids or asteroids, satellites, 

some comets, 
a Relation of sun to earth: nature, size, distance, attraction 

heat, light, eclipses of the sun. 
b Relation of other planets (and planetoids) to earth: nature; 

general idea of size, order and distance from sun; motions, 

light; phases; distinguished from stars. 
c Relation of moon to earth: nature, size, distance, revolution, 

rotation, light, phases, eclipses of the moon, other satellites. 
d Comets: nature, recognition, time visible, celebrated comets. 
e Meteors and falling stars : time when most numerous. 

3 Stellar systems. 

II Shape: oblate spheroid. 

1 Cause: gravitation, plasticity, centrifugal force caused by 
rotation. 

2 Evidences: change of visible constellations with change of 
latitude, curved shadow on moon, increase of horizon with 
increase of observer's altitude, upper parts of vessel seen 
farthest, variation of time with longitude, circumnavigation, 
weight of a body nearly constant but increasing slightly 
with latitude. 

3 Consequences: some of above evidences (partly from other 
causes), division of the earth's surface into climatic zones, 
variation of plant and animal life depending on climate, 
necessity for commerce. 

in Size. 

1 Measurements: polar and equatorial diameters, circumference, 
area. 

2 Comparison with measurements of sun and moon. 

3 Method of determination : problem of Eratosthenes. 

4 Relation of gravity : effect on human life and interests. 

x Matter in small type is suggested when the course is given in the fourth 
year but is not advised for the second year. 



134 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

IV Structure: interior, centrosphere ; crust, lithosphere; water, 
hydrosphere; air, atmosphere; directions up and down; points 
zenith and nadir. 

V Motions. 

i Rotation: time, direction, distance, axis, poles, equator. 

a Results and evidences : apparent daily motion of all heavenly 
bodies about earth or polestar, division of time into day and 
night, effects on habits of life, bulging at equator and con- 
sequent flattening at poles, deflection of currents in water 
and of winds, eastward deflection of falling bodies, Foucault's 
pendulum. 

b Directions: north, direction in a straight line toward (i) a 
point on the horizon, (2) a point in the heavens; south, the 
opposite of north; east, (1) direction in a straight line 
toward a point on the horizon, (2) a direction of curved 
motion, rotation and revolution ; west, the opposite of east. 

2 Revolution: time, direction, distance. 

a Orbit: size, shape, construction of an ellipse, sun at north 
focus, perihelion and aphelion, plane of orbit, equinox and 
solstice used to designate both position and time. 

b Inclination of axis, inclination of axes of other planets. 

c Results of inclination of axis and revolution: change of 
seasons involving variation in period and angle of insolation, 
location of tropics and polar circles. 

3 Motion with solar system through space. 

VI Localization of places. 

1 Latitude: definition, use. 

a Instruments for determining: plumb and level with card 
protractor and pin to cast shadow, compass. 

b Establishing a meridian: by direction of polestar, by 
shortest shadow of vertical rod on horizontal plane, by use 
of compass. 

c Determination of latitude: by altitude of polestar, by alti- 
tude of sun at meridian. 

d Increase in length of degrees toward poles. 

2 Longitude: definition, prime meridian, use. 

a Determination of longitude: by chronometer, by telegraph, 
by comparing local time with calculated time of observed 
astronomical events. 

b Decrease in length of degrees toward the poles. 

VII Time. 

1 Gregorian calendar, Julian calendar, meaning of old style (O. S.) 
and new style (N. S.) and of double year figures for dates between 
Jan. 1 and Mar. 25. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRArilY 135 

2 Solar, sidereal and lunar day. 

3 Mean solar time: equation of time, determination ul local noon 
by observation of shadow on meridian corrected by applying equa- 
tion of time, by use of sextant. 

4 Civil day : from midnight to midnight. 

5 Conventional day: beginning at international or intercalary 
date line. 

6 Standard time in the United States. 

VIII Magnetism. 

i Properties of a magnet. 

2 The earth a magnet: theory to account for magnetism of earth, 
magnetic poles and meridians, magnetic declination, agonic 
lines, isogonic lines, mariners compass. 

3 Magnetic inclination: magnetic equator, isoclinal lines, dipping 
needle. 

IX "Maps and map projection. 

i Advantages and disadvantages of maps as compared with 
charts and models. 

2 Use of contour lines, hachure lines or varied colors to show 
relief. 

3 Scales: varied for different purposes. 

4 Methods of projection: Mercator's, stereographic, globular, 
orthographic, cylindric, conical. 

The air 

I Atmosphere. 

i Definition. 

2 Origin and future as indicated by nebular hypothesis. 

3 Function of air as a whole: diffuses light; conducts sound; 
enables birds to fly ; reduces weight of bodies immersed in it ; 
retains heat; by its movements produces waves and ocean 
currents, moves ships, drives windmills, transports rain, snow 
and other objects, destroys property and life. 

II Composition of air : mechanical mixture. 

i Oxygen. 

a Probable origin and reason for its presence in the air. 

b Nature, relative abundance, distribution. 

c Function: necessary to animal life; oxidation, rusting, 
burning. 
2 Nitrogen. 

a Probable origin and reason for its presence in the air, lack of affinity 
for other elements. 

b Nature, relative abundance, distribution. 

c Function: dilutes oxygen, enriches soils through medium of nitro- 
gen-gathering plants. 



I36 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Carbon dioxid. 

a Nature, origin, relative abundance, distribution. 
b Function: necessary to plant life, action when dissolved in 
water. 

4 Water vapor. 

a Nature, origin, relative abundance, distribution. 
b Function: necessary to both plant and animal life, source 
of clouds and precipitation. 

5 Dust. 

a Nature and origin: inorganic, pulverized rock, ashes, solid parts of 

smoke; organic, decayed plant and animal tissues, living germs. 
b Distribution : chiefly over land in low altitudes in dry weather. 
c Effects: influences color of sky; promotes precipitation, 
decomposition and disease. 
6 Other elements: argon, krypton, helium etc. 

III Pressure and density. 

1 Relation of pressure to density and to temperature. 

2 Evidences of pressure, distinction between pressure and weight, 
weight of a given volume of air at sea level, weight determined by 
volume and pressure, 

3 Measurement of pressure. 

a Mercurial barometer: essential construction, eirentials to ac- 
curate reading, meaning of variation in reading, reason for using 
mercury instead of other liquids. 

b Aneroid barometer: construction, compared with mercurial 
barometer as to advantage in construction and in use. 

c Barograph: construction and use. 

4 Relation of pressure to altitude : 
a Probable depth of the air. 

b Reduction of barometer reading to sea level. 

c Reduction of barometer reading to standard temperature. 

5 Variation in pressure at constant level. 

a Station constant with time varied, pressure curve. 

b Time constant with station varied, isobars, barometric 

gradient. 
c Isobaric charts: for the world for January and July, cyclone 

or low and anticyclone or high. 

IV Temperature. 

1 Temperature and heat distinguished. 

2 Sources of heat : sun, insolation defined and its relation to heat 
and temperature considered, other heavenly bodies, internal 
heat of earth. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 137 

3 Measurement of temperature. 

a Liquid thermometers: construction, scales, maximum and 

minimum. 
b Metallic thermometers: construction. 
c Thermograph: construction and use. 

4 Different capacities of land, water and air for absorbing, 
reflecting and transmitting the heat of insolation. 

5 Ways in which air is warmed and cooled. 

6 Elements affecting temperature: 

a Distribution of heat: determined by alternation of day and 
night and change of seasons. 

b Pressure: association of lows with high temperature and of 
highs with low temperature. 

c Latitude: decrease of about i F. for increase of one degree 
. in latitude. 

d Altitude: decrease of about i F. for increase of 300 feet in 
altitude. 

e Bodies of water. 

f Cloudiness. 

g Prevailing winds. 

h Exposure: sunny slopes, valleys, relative position of moun- 
tains. 

7 Variation in temperature. 

a Station constant with time varied, temperature curve, time 

of maximum and minimum. 
b Time constant with station varied, isotherms, temperature 

gradient. 
c Isothermal charts : for the world for January and July, heat 

equator, cold pole, crowded isotherms. 

8 Heat belt and areas: tropical with temperature 70 F. or above, 
temperate with temperature between 70 F. and 30 F., frigid 
with temperature below 30 F. ; more regular in southern 
hemisphere than in northern hemisphere, reasons. 

V Movements of air. 

1 Definition: winds, currents. 

2 Inauguration of movement : theoretical explanation. 

3 Classification of winds as to origin. 

a Terrestrial: planetary, due to excessive heating at equator 
and rotation of the earth, found in regions of equatorial 
calms, trades, tropical calms, antitrades and circumpolar 
winds. 



I38 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Cyclonic winds: irregular winds induced by local highs and 
lows which themselves move with the terrestrial winds where ' 
they occur; tropical cyclones originating within the tropics 
and dying out in the belt of westerlies or antitrades, 
equinoxial storms; extratropical cyclones originating in 
summer in temperate latitudes, in winter in high latitudes; 
cold and hot waves. 

c Continental winds: in summer and winter; sea and land, 
valley and mountain breezes, by day and night. 

4 Deflection of winds from barometric gradient to right in 
northern hemisphere and to left in southern hemisphere, 
Ferrel's law. 

5 Migration of terrestrial wind belts: monsoons, lagging behind 
the sun. 

6 Paths of cyclones and anticyclones in the United States and 
adjacent waters. 

a In the North: usually southeast to the Mississippi valley, 

then northeast to the Atlantic. 
b In the South: usually northeast across the continent. 
c Of tropical cyclones from the West Indies : northwest to the 

vicinity of Florida or Carolina coast or farther inland, then 

northeast. 

7 Change of temperature in vertical currents: due to expansion or com- 
pression, fall of 1 F. for 166 feet rise. 

8 Velocity of winds. 

a Measurement: anemometer. 

b Classification. (1) Calm: no perceptible movement, less than 1 
mile an hour. (2) Light: moving leaves on trees, less than 10 
miles an hour. (3) Moderate: moving small branches, 10 to 15 
miles an hour. (4) Brisk: swaying branches and raising dust, 15 
to 25 miles an hour. (5) High: swaying trees and raising leaves 
and twigs, 25 to 40 miles an hour. (6) Gale: breaking branches 
and uprooting trees, 40 to 60 miles an hour. (7) Hurricane: 
destroying houses, above 60 miles an hour. 

VI Humidity. 

1 Absolute and relative: dew-point and its relation to tempera- 
ture; measurement and instruments, hygrometer, psychrom- 
eter, hygrodeik. 

2 Condensation. 

a Causes : changes in temperature and pressure. 

b Forms: clouds, cirrus, stratus, cumulus, nimbus; fogs; 

dew; frost; precipitation, rain, snow, hail, sleet. 
c Distribution: causes, winds, barriers; results, deserts, 

semiarid and well watered regions. 



TIIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 139 

d Measurement: rain gage. 

e Rains: cyclonic, tropical, monsoon. 

VII Weather and climate. 

1 .Elements: temperature, precipitation, cloudiness, winds, 

impurities in the air. 

2 Controlling factors: latitude; altitude; distance from ocean 
or other large body of water; position with reference to 
mountains, terrestrial wind belts, paths of lows and highs. 

3 Lows and highs: relation to local winds, precipitation and 
temperature. 

4 Weather maps. 

a Construction and distribution by the United States govern- 
ment. 
b Interpretation. 

5 Forecasting: limits and benefits. 

6 Climatic belts and regions. 

7 Changes in climate: recent and remote. 

VIII Electric and light phenomena . 

1 Lightning, St Elmo's fire, aurora. 

2 Rainbow, colors of sky, coronas, sun dogs, moon dogs, halos, loom- 
ing, mirage, zodiacal light. 

The ocean 

I Area, distribution, characteristics, functions, adaptations. 

II Sea water. 

1 Composition : varies with locality. 

2 Density: varies with composition and temperature, only slightly 
with pressure. 

III Exploration of ocean: sounding and dredging. 

1 Instruments: for ascertaining depth temperature, rate and direction 
of current and for obtaining samples of bottom, water and life at 
desired depths. 

2 Use of instruments and immediate results. 

IV Depth: maximum and average. 

V Temperature: sources of heat and elements controlling tem- 
perature, horizontal and vertical variations, temperatures of 
deep equatorial seas and of deep mediterraneans accounted for. 

VI Movements of ocean waters. 

1 Wave movements. 

a Causes: winds, influence of moon and sun, seismic disturb- 
ances. 



I40 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Movements of wave form and of water particles in wave. 

c Parts: crest, trough, front, back. 

d Qualities: hight, length. 

e Modified forms, chiefly of wind waves: rollers, breakers, 
surf, undertow. 

f Effects of wind waves: modify shore line; aerate water; 
destroy sea walls, docks and vessels; effects modified by 
use of oil ; furnish power to ring bells, blow whistles, pump 
water, etc. 

g Interval of tides (tide waves): lagging behind moon, estab- 
lishment of the port, unequal period of rising and falling. 

h Varieties and stages of tides: spring, neap, flood, ebb, high 
water, low water, slack water. 

i Modifications of tide waves: bores, races, tides in special 
places. 

j Effects of tides: modify shore line, prevent stagnation of 
water in harbors, carry waste out to sea, affect navigation, 
open inlets in reefs and bars, bring food to fixed forms of 
animal life, furnish power to tide mills and for raising heavy 
weights as ships and bridges. 

k Earthquake waves: unexpected, effects. 
2 Currents and drifts. 

a Defined, contrasted with waves. 

b Exciting and modifying causes: prevailing winds; changes 
Of level due to evaporation, precipitation, expansion; rota- 
tion of the earth, Ferrel's law; obstruction by shore lines. 

c General movements in all oceans: whirls with center calm, 
sargasso sea. 

d Atlantic currents: equatorial and counter equatorial cur- 
rents, gulf stream, Greenland and Labrador currents, antarctic 
drift. 

e Pacific currents: equatorials, counter equatorial, Japan, Humboldt, 
north Pacific. 

/ Indian currents: south equatorial, Malabar, Mozambique, west 
Australian, antarctic drift. 

g Polar currents. 

h Effects: modify climate, Alaska, British Isles, Labrador; 
transport icebergs, icepacks and floe ice, of which note 
origin, characteristics and dangers; distribute plant and 
animal life ; supply driftwood to shores destitute of growing 
timber; affect navigation. 
Creep : slow movement of cold water at bottom of ocean toward 

equator, evidence, cause, effect. 



PHYSICA] GEOGRAPHY 141 

VII The ocean floor. 

1 Relief: compared with that of land, character, cause. 

2 Origin and composition of material. 

a On continental shelf: chiefly washings from land, gravel, 

shingle, sand, mud. 
b In deep water: remains of minute marine life, pteropod 

ooze, globigerina ooze, diatom ooze, radiolarian ooze. 
c In deepest water: volcanic and meteoric dust, red clay. 

3 Possible future : by successive uplifts deep ocean bottom may become 
continental shelf, coastal plain, plateau, faulted mountains; mud and 
clay may become shale or by metamorphosis slate; coral, shells, 
pteropod ooze and globigerina ooze may become limestone or by 
metamorphosis marble; diatom ooze and radiolarian ooze may be- 
come silicious rock or by metamorphosis quartz rock. 

VIII Life in the ocean. 

1 Controlling factors: temperature, light, pressure, currents, 
oxygen, food. 

2 Regions. 

a Littoral: conditions propitious, vary with locality and 
season, favor varied forms; mangrove trees, seaweeds, 
mammals, numerous and valuable fishes, minute and larger 
shell-bearing forms, lobsters, crabs, barnacles, sponges, 
corals. 

b Pelagic: forms similar in all localities ; conditions at bottom 
nearly uniform and unpropitious ; fishes, shell-bearing forms, 
crabs, starfish, corals. 

Water other than ocean 

I Source: precipitation, rainfall. 

II Disposal. 

1 Evaporation: controlling factors, amount, effect on tempera- 
ture. 

2 Sinking into the earth: ground water. 

a Position: depth below surface of the earth. 

b Destructive action: erosion and corrasion by its rivers, falls 
and lakes; solvent action increased by carbon dioxid in 
solution, effects on salt and limestone, caverns and life in 
them, sink or swallow holes. 

c Constructive action: deposits as veins, stalactites, stalag- 
mites ; deposits on reappearing. 

d Reappearance: springs, wells, artesian wells, mineral springs, 
hot springs, geysers. 



142 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Run-off: small streams, rivers. 

a Correct ideas: river, source, banks, bed, mouth, basin, 
system, divide, slope, base level. 

b Work of rivers: drainage of water and waste; corrasion of 
bed producing valleys, falls, potholes, alluvial terraces; 
corrasion of banks producing meanders, oxbow lakes, 
widening of flood plain; transportation of drift on surface, 
stones and pebbles by rolling along bottom, sand and mud 
in suspension, salt and lime in solution ; grinding, polishing 
and comminuting load. . 

c Normal cycle in life history of a river: youth characterized 
by falls, rapids, lakes, V-shaped valleys; maturity when 
previous features have disappeared, profile of equilibrium 
or grade, migration of divides; old age characterized by 
flood plains, oxbow lakes, elevation of river bed affecting 
tributaries and distributaries, natural levees, deltas and 
conditions favoring delta formation. 

d Cycle interrupted and new cycle introduced: by depression 
producing drowned valleys, bays, dismembered rivers, 
estuaries, filled valleys; by elevation producing revived 
rivers, reversed rivers, intrenched meanders, antecedent 
rivers, ingrafted rivers, river terraces, alluvial terraces; by 
change of climate from moist to arid producing wadies, 
salines, salt lakes, play as; by change of climate from warm 
to glacial producing extinction of rivers by ice sheet. 

e Lakes: (i) relation to rivers; (2) formation: by uplift, 
original lakes on coastal plain ; by natural progress of river 
cycle, oxbow lakes, lakes dammed by sediments; by glacial 
action, lakes in glaciated regions; by accident such as land- 
slips, lava flow, work of beavers; by volcanic action, crater 
lakes; (3) water: generally fresh, becoming salt if evapora- 
tion is large in proportion to outflow; (4) destruction: by 
filling with plant or animal matter, salt, silt brought in 
streams, material driven by winds, dunes; by draining 
consequent on tilt of earth's surface, deepening of outlet, new 
outlet; by evaporation; (5) function: store and purify 
water, regulate river flow, compare St Lawrence and Ohio 
rivers, promote navigation, affect climate. 

f Life in rivers and lakes: compared with life in ocean. 

g Falls and rapids: origin, recession upstream, grade reaches 
between falls, economic importance of falls, location of 
cities. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY [43 

III Glaciers. 

1 Kinds: continental or ice sheet, alpine. 

2 Present and former ice sheets: glacial periods, evidences. 

3 Formation : manner and needed conditions. 

4 Movement: causes, rate, advance, recession. 

5 Moraines: source, classification, disposal. 

6 Work: corrasion, scratching, grooving, polishing; transporta- 
tion; deposition; plowing out valleys parallel to movement, 
filling valleys not parallel to movement; formation of terminal 
moraines, kames, eskers, drumlins. 

7 Disposal: melting in place giving rise to rivers, carried away 
by ocean currents as icebergs. 

8 Comparison with rivers. 

The land 

I Area, distribution, characteristics, functions, adaptations. 

II Surface : compared with the floor of the ocean. 

III Rock. 

1 Definition. 

2 Classification. 

a By composition: (1) Silica: quartz; rock crystal; amethyst; 
chalcedony, sard, carnelian; agate, onyx, sardonyx; jasper, 
bloodstone; opal, hydrophane; sand, pebbles; flint, horn- 
stone. (2) Alumina: alumina, sapphire, corundum, emery. 
(3) Lime: carbonate as common limestone, calc spar, chalk, 
tufa, stalactites, oolite, marl, dolomite, marble; sulphate 
as plaster, satin spar, selenite. (4) Silicates: feldspar as 
orthoclase, albite, labradorite; mica; hornblende, asbestos, 
pyroxene; talc, soapstone, serpentine, chlorite; garnet; 
tourmalin. 

b By origin: (1) Sedimentary: silicious and argillaceous sand- 
stone; silicious, calcareous or ferruginous conglomerate as 
pudding stone, breccia; shale; limestone. (2) Igneous: 
trap rock as basalt, greenstone, porphyry, amygdaloid; 
volcanic rock as trachyte, lava. (3) Metamorphic: granite, 
gneiss, mica schist, syenite, marble, anthracite coal. 

c By structure: unstratified, stratified. 

3 Common rocks: study to secure ready identification. 

IV Minerals. 

1 Definition, composition, characteristics. 

2 Classification. 

a Native metals and ores. 



144 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Other minerals of direct and important economic value. 
c Minerals of importance as making rocks. 
d Other minerals not important in this study. 

V Soil : formation ; residual, transported ; varieties ; adaptations. 

VI Causes of change. 

i Diastrophism. 

a Causes: cooling, shrinking, wrinkling. 

b Results: continents, ocean basins, changes in local topogra- 
phy of land surface and ocean floor. 

2 Isostasy: suggested adjustment of earth's crust to load, producing 
from sea bottom new land areas, near and parallel to present coast 
line, temporary islands and mud lumps at the mouths of delta- 
forming rivers. 

3 Volcanism. 

a Probable causes. 

b Definitions: volcano, cone, crater, eruption etc. 

c Classification of eruptions: explosive due to expansion of 
gases, oozing due to hydrostatic pressure, mixed. 

d Phenomena of eruption: before, during and after. 

e Products of eruption: gaseous, liquid, solid, economic. 

/ Classification of cones: ash (steepest), lava (flattest), ash 
and lava (intermediate). 

g Classification of volcanos: active, dormant, extinct. 

h Volcanic sheets and necks. 

i Distribution of active volcanos: proximity to ocean, asso- 
ciation with young and growing mountains. 

4 Erosion, transportation, deposition. 

a Causes: gravity, change in temperature, chemism, moisture, 
wind, wave, current, stream, sand driven by wind, plant 
and animal life. 

b Results: modification of the larger features of relief pro- 
duced by other causes, in general increasing the strength of 
relief to maturity, then decreasing that strength to old age. 

VII Geographic cycle. 

i Influences determining length. 

a Initial elevation of land. 

b Vigor of eroding agents or character of climate. 

c Resistance of rocks. 
2 Close of cycle: production of peneplain. 

VIII Forms of relief. 

i Plains: regions of slight elevation, fairly smooth surface and 
relatively horizontal strata. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 145 

a Coastal plain: uplifted continental shelf, (i) Narrow: 
simple drainage. (2) Broad: production of belts, artesian 
wells. (3) Embayed: drowning of former marginal land. 
(4) Ancient: now often far from ocean. (5) Economic 
importance of coastal plains. 

b Alluvial plain: built up by river at flood stages. (1) Change 
in position of stream in flood plain, meandering, migration. 
(2) Slope: away from stream, high front lands, swampy 
back lands. (3) Drainage: turning of tributaries down- 
stream as they enter flood plain, distributaries. (4) Fitness 
for life: soil fertile and easily worked, unhealthfulness, 
danger from overflow. (5) Protection against overflow: 
levees, outlets. 

c Lacustrine plain. (1) Filled and drained lake basins: 
fertility, fitness for life. (2) Dessicated lake basins: salt 
plains, characterize arid regions. 

d Glacial plain. (1) Cause: chiefly continental glaciers. 
(2) Deposits: unassorted and unstratified, till. (3) Lakes: 
numerous, due to youth of plain. (4) Characteristics: 
angular and scratched pebbles and boulders, balanced rocks, 
sometimes polished and grooved bed rock. 

e Plain of denudation: origin, characteristics. 

2 Plateaus. 

a Definition: differ from plains only in elevation. 

b Dissected plateaus, canyons. 

c Old plateaus, mesas, buttes. 

d Broken plateaus: faults, fault line, fault plane. 

e Economic importance of plateaus. 

3 Mountains. 

a Definition: distinguished from plateaus. 

b Causes: diastrophism, volcanism. 

c Classification. (1) Block: due to uplift and faulting, 
analogy to broken plateaus. (2) Domed: broad arch or 
open fold, due to buckling of strata from lateral pressure, 
or to intrusion of laccolite. (3) Folded: both simple and 
complex, probably due to lateral pressure producing anti- 
clines and synclines; anticlinal valleys and synclinal ridges. 
(4) Massive: not properly mountains but mature plateaus. 

e Life history of mountains. (1) Youth: steep slopes, land- 
slips, avalanches, earthquakes, ridges, peaks, ,bare ledges. 
(2) Maturity: lowered peaks, water gaps, passes, revealed 
mineral deposits. (3) Old age: approach to peneplain, 



I46 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

production of monadnocks or relict mountains, deep waste 
cloak, uniform and forested slopes. 

/ Hight: dependent on initial elevation, vigor of eroding 
agents, resistance of rocks, age of mountains. 

g Mountains as barriers: retard or prevent uniform distribu- 
tion of temperature and rainfall, distribution of plants and 
animals, commerce and the spread of civilization; con- 
servativeness of the inhabitants of mountains. 

h Climate. 

i Economic value: health resorts, timber reserves, mineral 
and rock wealth. 

IX Shore lines. 

1 Definition. 

2 Regular shore line, resulting from: 

a Migration of shore line seaward due to movement of earth's 

crust. 
b Migration of shore line seaward by building of, sand reefs 

parallel to shore, filling lagoons and inlets; cusp and crescent 

outlines. 
c Migration of shore line seaward by formation of river deltas. 
d Smoothing action of waves and currents producing sea cliffs, 

bay -head and barrier beaches, land-tied islands. 
e Smoothing action of ice foot in high latitudes. 

3 Irregular shore line: resulting from migration of shore line 
landward due to movement of earth's crust; characteristics 
as islands, caves, drowned valleys, dismembered rivers, promon- 
tories. 

4 Modification of shore lines by plant and animal life. 

a Plant life: mangrove trees in tropical ocean, marsh and 

eelgrass in other localities. 
b Animal life, specially corals. (1) Conditions of temperature 

and depth of water favoring the growth of coral. (2) 

Fringing reefs. (3) Barrier reefs: relation to fringing reefs. 

(4) Atolls: theories as to origin, relation to barrier reefs. 

5 Lake shore lines: miniatures of ocean shore lines. 

6 Abandoned ancient shore lines: beaches and benches. 

7 Sand dunes along the shore. 

8 Harbors. 

a Classification: river, delta, estuary, fiord, lagoon, sand 

bar, sand spit, atoll, crater. 
b Advantages and disadvantages of various classes. 
c Economic importance: location of cities. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 147 

LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
The numbers in curves indicate the values assigned to the exercises, 
i a Construct an ellipse to scale showing the correct shape of the 
earth's orbit. 
b Show the position of the earth at equinoxes and at solstices 

with dates. 
c Distribution of sunlight at each of these dates. 
d Direction of rotation and revolution ; distance of the earth from 
the sun at aphelion and at perihelion (2). 

2 a Construct diagrams showing the positions of the earth, sun and 

moon at the several phases of the moon. 
b Position of the moon during the month with reference to the 

earth's equator. 
c Explanation of phases and reasons why eclipses do not occur 

every month (1). 

3 a Construct diagrams showing partial and total lunar eclipses. 
b Construct diagrams showing partial, total and annular solar 

eclipses. 
c Calculate the length of the shadows of the earth and the moon 
and the diameter of the earth's shadow where the moon passes 
through it (2). 

4 a Study Eratosthenes's method of finding the size of the earth. 
b Determine the length of the circumference of a circle by this 

method. 
c Check any error by finding the length of the circumference by 
simple geometrical means (1). 

5 a Construct a diagram showing the determination of the length 

of the solar, the lunar and the sidereal day. 
b Comparison of values with an explanation (1). 

6 Determine the length of day at any latitude at any time of the 
year (1). 

7 Find the place of sunrise and of sunset at any latitude at any 
time of the year (1). 

8 a Plot the curves of a shadow cast by an upright post at any 

latitude at the time of the solstices and of the equinoxes. 
b Interpretation of curves (2). 

9 a Find a north and south line. 

b Find the civil time of local noon (2). 

10 a Measure the angle of altitude of trees, towers and sun. 
b Construct these angles (1). 

11 Determine relative heat received from the sun at different 
altitudes (2). 



I48 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

12 Construct and interpret sunrise and sunset curves (1). 

13 Determine the observer's latitude from: 
a Sun's altitude. 

b Elevation of north pole (2). 

14 a Make a Mercator's projection of latitude and longitude lines. 
b Sketch in continents from a globe (2). 

15 Make a modified Lambert's projection fixing the meridians, 
parallels, tropics and polar circles (1). 

16 a Make an orthographic polar projection of the northern hem- 

isphere locating the Tropic of Cancer and the polar circle. 
b Locate all lines showing latitude and longitude (1). 

17 Interpret a contour map as to drainage, distances, slopes and 
relative hights (1). 

18 Make vertical sections from contour maps (1). 

19 Make a contour map from given data (1). 

20 Make interpolations between meridians and parallels (1). 

21 Experiment with Foucault's pendulum (1). 

22 Determine altitudes by use of barometer (1). 

23 Determine the dew-point and calculate from data the relative 
and the absolute humidity (1).* 

24 Account for differences in isothermal charts of the world for 
January and July (1). 

25 Account for position and migration of heat equator and cold 
pole (1). 

26 a Study isobaric charts of the world for January and July. 
b Account for terrestrial winds in these months (1). 

27 Interpret records of thermograph, barograph and wind direction 
and study their mutual relations (1). 

28 a Keep for one month a daily record of pressure, temperature, 

wind direction, state of sky, humidity, location of approaching 

low, precipitation. 
b Plot pressure and temperature curves. 
c Study of mutual relations of conditions recorded (5). 

29 Study the general wind direction about centers of low and high 
areas from weather maps (1). 

30 Find the direction and average rate of the progressive move- 
ment of a storm center in the United States (1). 

3 1 Make an isobar map of the United States from furnished data (1) . 

32 Make an isotherm map of the United States from furnished 
data (1). 

33 Study the distribution of cloudiness and rainfall about several 
storm centers (1). 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY I49 

34 Forecast weather conditions from furnished data (1). 

35 Study cold waves and northeasters (i). 

36 Plot curve representing daily rainfall for one year at a given 
station from given data (1). 

37 Plot tidal curve for a given station for the month of January 
from given data (1). 

3S Interpret the tidal curve as to spring and neap tides and diurnal 
inequality (1). 

39 Test sea water for density, taste and amount of gas and of solid 
matter in solution (2). 

40 Construct a diagram showing high, low, spring and neap tides 
and make explanation (1). 

41 Study trade routes across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans from 
pilot charts (1). 

42 Make an orderly arrangement of nine minerals to show a scale 
of hardness (2). 

43 Study quartz, feldspar, mica and calcite as types of rock- 
forming minerals (2). 

44 Study two ores of each of the following: iron, copper, lead and 
zinc (2). 

45 Study samples of soil (2). 

46 Study salt, sulfur, gypsum and graphite as types of nonmetallic 
minerals of direct economic value (2). 

47 Study 8 or 10 common rocks (2). 

48 Construct a river profile (1). 

49 Study regular shore lines, Atlantic City topographic sheet (2). 

50 Study irregular shore lines, Boothbay, Me. topographic sheet 

(2). 

51 Study glacial topography, Whitewater topographic sheet (2). 

52 Make a collection of glaciated and of water-washed pebbles (2). 

53 Study the Appalachian mountains, Harrisburg sheet (2). 

54 Study volcanic effects, Mt Shasta sheet (2). 

55 Study river development, a young region, Ottawa, 111. sheet (2). 

56 Study river development, a mature region, Charleston, W. Va. 
sheet (2). 

57 Study river development, an old region, Caldwell, Kan. sheet 
(2). 

58 Study Mississippi river, upper course, Savanna, 111. sheet (2). 

59 Study Mississippi river, meanders, Mississippi river sheet no. 14 

00- 

60 Study Mississippi river, natural levees, Donaldsonville, La. sheet 

(2). 



150 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

61 Study Niagara falls, survey and maps (2). 

62 Study a drowned river valley (2). 

63 Study a plain, Wicomico, Md. sheet (2). 

64 Study a plateau, Kaibab, Ariz, sheet (2). 

65 Study distribution of coniferous, deciduous and tropical forests , 
and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 

66 Study distribution of areas producing the most important grains 
and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 

67 Study distribution of areas producing the most important fiber 
plants and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 

68 Study distribution of areas producing the most important fruits 
and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 

69 Study distribution of animal life and its relation to climate (2). 

70 Study distribution of human population as to density and the 
relation it bears to soil, climate, water power, harbors etc. 

FIELD EXCURSIONS 

In making field excursions the points to be studied will depend 
on the locality. Such topics as clouds and their movements, 
weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, river currents, 
waves, tides, rocks, minerals, foldings, faults, dikes, evidences of 
upheaval and subsidence, natural slope of different materials, land 
forms, location of highways, soil, falls, rapids, water power, harbors 
and distribution of plant and animal life are of special importance. 



AGRICULTURE 151 



AGRICULTURE 1 

This outline presents an orderly arrangement of work for a three 
period course for one year. It should preferably be pursued in the 
second year of the high school, after the pupil has completed a year's 
work in biology. The student must also have some knowledge of 
elementary chemistry; if this knowledge has not been obtained in 
the study of biology, one or two weeks should be devoted to it before 
the specific subjects of the course in agriculture are undertaken. 
The pupil should have an elementary knowledge of chemical com- 
bination and also of the 14 elements chiefly concerned in the com- 
position of soil and the production of plants and animals: (1) 
carbon; (2) hydrogen; (3) oxygen; (4) nitrogen; (5) sulphur; 
(6) phosphorus; (7) iron; (8) calcium; (9) magnesium; (10) 
potassium; (11) sodium; (12) chlorin; (13) silicon; (14) aluminum. 

Abundant laboratory work should be provided, at least one 
period out of the three, every week. 2 

Agricultural operations are conducted for two immediate pur- 
poses: to raise plants, and to raise animals. Plants are raised 
either for their own value or for their use in the feeding of animals. 
In studying agriculture, therefore, it is well to begin with the plant, 
then proceed to the animal, and then consider questions of practice 
and management that grow out of these subjects. 

Part I The plant and crops 

The study of the plant may be provided for under two general 
heads: (1) the plant itself; (2) the environment that influences or 
modifies the plant. 

Section 1 The plant itself 
Under section 1 , the plant may be studied in relation to (a) compo- 
sition ; (b) structure ; (c) physiology ; (d) heredity and plant-breeding. 
On the assumption that the student has covered categories a, b and c 
in his work in botany, these subjects are omitted here; therefore, 
only part d, together with a classification of agricultural plants, is 
outlined here. 

A Classification of economic plants. 

1 Cereals. 

2 Grasses. 

3 Legumes. 

4 Vegetables. 

^his syllabus has been prepared at the request of the Education Department by represent- 
atives of the faculty of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 

2 It is expected that an outline of laboratory exercises to accompany the topical syllabus 
will be issued in the fall of 1905. 



I52 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

5 Fruits. 

6 Tubers. 

7 Roots. 

8 Sugar plants. 

9 Oil plants. 

10 Fiber plants. 

11 Stimulants. 

12 Medicinal and aromatic plants. 

13 Timber crops (forestry). 

14 Flowers and ornamental plants. 
B Heredity and plant -breeding. 

1 Principles. 

2 Processes. 

3 Steps in improvement of plants. 

a Variation: environment, crossing. 

b Selection. 

c Testing hereditary power. 

4 Illustrations of improvement in plants. 

5 Methods of improvement. 

Section 2 Environment of the plant 

The subject of environment may be studied under the following 
heads: (a) light and heat; (b) air; (c) soil; (d) moisture; (e) 
applied plant food; (/) repressive and noxious agencies. 

C Light and heat. 

1 Relative interdependence. 

2 Effect. 

3 Influence of character of light. 

4 Influence of seasons. 

5 Temperature for germination and growth. 

6 How modified: by 
a Color. 

b Evaporation. 
c Topography. 
d Character of soil. 
e Cultivation. 
f Rolling. 

g Thickness of planting. 
h Fermentation. 

i Artificial means : screens, electricity, artificial heat. 
D Air. 

1 Function above ground. 
a Oxygen. 
b Carbon dioxid. 



AGRICULTURE 1 53 

2 Function in soils. 
c Oxygen. 

d Nitrogen. 

e Removal of carbon dioxid. 

3 Processes of soil ventilation. 
/By diffusion. 

g By expansion and contraction of air due to temperature. 
h By expansion and compression due to barometric pressure. 
* Suctional effect of gusts of wind. 
j Air absorbed by rain water. 

k By removal of water through drainage, evaporation and 
transpiration of plants. 
E The soil — function of the soil. 

i As rootholds and mechanical supports of plants. 
2 As sources of plant food. 
F The soil — origin. 

i Disintegration and decomposition of rocks. 

2 Erosion, transportation and deposition of sediment (by 
water and ice). 

3 Sorting out of sand, silt and clay by running water and 
deposition of soils of different texture as a result of sorting. 

4 Movement of soils by wind. 

5 Decay of animal and vegetable materials. Humus. 
G The soil — physical composition. 

i Solid matter: mineral, organic. 

2 Liquid matter: impure water or soil solution, air. 

3 Gaseous matter: carbonic acid gas, water vapor. 

H The soil — kinds of soils: peat, muck, clay, loam, sand, gravel, 

stony soils. 
I The soil — texture of soils: relation of texture to air, retention 
and movement of water, drainage, temperature, weight and solidity, 
roothold of plants. 

J The soil — plant food in the soil and air (general survey), 
i Elements essential to plant life. 

2 Elements found in minerals. 

3 Elements and compounds in air (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon 

dioxid, ammonia). 

4 Elements in water (hydrogen, oxygen and dissolved oxygen). 
K Moisture. 

i Purpose. 

2 Importance. 

3 Quantity required. 

4 How modified: by 



154 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

a Kind of soil. 

b Topography. 

c Fertilizers and amendments. 

d Cultivators. 

e Drainage and irrigation. 
L Plant food. 

i According to constituents. 

a Nitrogenous. 

b Phosphoric. 

c Potassic. 

d Amendments. 
2 According to form. 

e Green manures. Cover crops. 

/ Animal manures. Farm manures. 

g Commercial manures or fertilizers. 
M Plant food (farm manures) . 
i Properties. 

2 Sources. 

3 Uses. 

4 Preparation, care and handling. 

5 Application. 

6 Economy. 

N Plant food (commercial fertilizers) . 
i Sources. 

2 Uses. 

3 Application. 

4 Economy. 

5 Offices of the leading elements of commercial fertilizers — 
nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus. 

Repressive agencies, 
i Insects. 

2 Fungous diseases. 

3 Acidity of soil. 

4 Toxic agencies and untoward conditions. 
P Farm crops. 

Actual study of the leading crops of the community. The 
products themselves should be actually handled and studied in 
school, as ears of corn, beans, wheat (in head and straw if possible) , 
potatoes, oats, fruits, vegetables. Determine physical character- 
istics, as weight, size, shape, color etc. Discuss the methods of 
growing the crop : its place in the farm scheme and in the rota- 
tion; methods of preparing the land and tillage; fertilizing; 



AGRICULTURE 1 55 

harvesting; marketing; insect and fungous enemies; its im- 
portance in the community ; history. At least one crop should be 
thus studied in detail. 

Part II Animals and animal husbandry 

Q The kinds of domestic animals. 

i Classification of common domestic animals. 

Mammals. Cattle, sheep, swine, horses, asses, mules, dogs. 
Birds: fowls, ducks, geese, pigeons, turkeys. 
Insects: bees. 
2 Zoological relationships: origin, history of domestication, 
purposes for which kept, races, breeds and varieties of each. 
R Nutrition of domestic animals, 
i Relations of plant and animal life. 

2 The chemical elements of nutrients: their number and 
occurrence in plants and animals. 

3 The compounds of animal nutrients. 

a Water: in living plants, feeding stuffs, the animal. Its 
occurrence and functions. 
b Mineral matters (ash) in the plant and in the_animal: 
amount and distribution. 
c The nutrients. 
5 Nutrition {continued). The nutrients in detail, 
i Protein. 
a Nomenclature. 
b Examples. 
c Composition. 
d Physical characteristics 
e Variability. 
/ Occurrence. 
g Distribution. 

2 Carbohydrates. 
a Examples. 

b Composition. 

c Physical characteristics. 

d Nitrogen — free extract and crude fiber. 

e Starches. 

/ Sugars. 

g Occurrence and distribution. 

3 Fats and oils. 

a Character and composition. 
b Occurrence and distribution. 



I56 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

4 Functions of the nutrients. 
a Protein. 

b Carbohydrates and fat. 
c Relations to one another. 
d Nutritive ratio. 
e Food as a source of energy, 
f Heat relations. 
T The digestion and utilization of food. 

1 The digestive tract. 

2 Ferments. 

3 Conditions influencing digestion. 
a Palatableness. 

b Quantity. 

c Stage of growth of plant. 

d Effect of methods of preservation and storage. 

e Grinding. 

f Addition of salt. 

g Frequency of feeding and watering. 

h Determination of digestibility. 

4 Distribution and use of digested food ; also elimination of 
wastes. 

U Foods. 

1 Pasturage. 

2 Forage and fodders: green and dried fodders, soiling, silage. 

3 Roots and tubers. 

4 Concentrated feeding stuffs: grains and seeds, commercial 
by-products. 

V Rations. 

1 Food requirements of different animals for different purposes. 
a For maintenance. 

b For work. 

c For growth (young animals) . 

d For flesh (fattening). 

e For milk, eggs, wool etc. 

2 Combination of fodders into rations. 
f Amount of nutrients. 

g Amount of water (succulence) . 

h Relative proportions of protein and nonprotein (nutritive 

ratio). 
i Palatableness. 
; Effect on product. 
k Economy. 



AGRICULTURE 157 

W Animal products. 

i Flesh: beef, mutton, pork, poultry; relation; compo- 
sition; quality as determined by age and condition of 
animal ; relative suitability as food for man ; economy. 

2 Eggs: composition; quality as affected by food of fowl; 
methods of preservation; economy. 

3 Milk. 

a Source ; kind of animal ; physiology of secretion ; methods 
of milking. 

b Quality ; chemical and physical properties ; natural varia- 
tions as affected by animal, by food, by environment, by 
adulteration. 

c Determination of specific gravity, fat, organisms, im- 
purities, adulteration. 
X The animal. (The animal form as related to production) 
i Animal mechanism in relation to speed and force, types of 

animals for production of milk and beef, wool and mutton, 

eggs and flesh. Correspondence of individual to type. 

Standards or scales of points; methods of scoring 
2 Selection of animal with reference to future generations; 

heredity; variation; evolution of modern forms from 

simpler types. 

Part III Farm schemes and management 

Y Farms schemes, 
i Kinds of farming. 

2 Rotations, considered as to history, principles and systems. 

3 Lay-out of farms, as to arrangement of fields, lanes, water 
supplies, buildings. 

Z Farm practice, 
i Tillage. 
a Purpose and effects. 
b Methods. 

2 Drainage. 

c Purpose and effects. 
d Methods. 

3 Irrigation. 

e Purpose and effects, 
f Methods. 



GROUP 4 

HISTORY 

Ancient history English history 

European history American history 

In December 1880, the University of the State of New York sent 
out to academic schools a summary statement of examinations 
in which were definite suggestions in regard to the scope of the 
instruction advisable in the different fields of academic study. 
These suggestions were submitted to the academic schools with 
a request for careful consideration and criticisms and evidently 
form the basis of succeeding Regents syllabuses. The fields of 
history recommended in these suggestions of 1880 were American, 
English, Greek, Roman, civics and economics, and the entire out- 
lines for the six fields covered only four pages. 

In 1883 a noted educator undertook the editorship of a peda- 
gogic library and chose the subject of history for the initial vol- 
ume because he thought that no subject so widely taught was 
taught so poorly ; and it is significant that six university professors 
or distinguished writers of history contributed to the contents of 
that volume. 

The estimate of history teaching made in 1883 is, perhaps, still 
valid; but the intervening years have been a period of promise 
and progress. The publications referred to seem to mark the 
beginnings, in this country, of cooperative effort to secure bet- 
ter secondary teaching in general and specially better teaching 
of history. The growth of cooperative spirit among history 
teachers may be traced in the formation of the Committee of Ten 
which met at the University of Wisconsin in 1892, in the Columbia 
Conference of 1896, in the appointment of the Committee of Seven, 
and its report in 1899 and in the formation of history teachers 
associations in New England, in the North Central States, in 
Nebraska, California and Indiana and in the Middle States and 
Maryland. 

The results of these various efforts are as follows: a uniform 
course of history for secondary schools has been planned and 
widely adopted; uniform requirements for admission to college 
supplemented by uniform entrance examinations have been pro- 
vided; a movement to articulate the courses of college history 
with those of the high school has been started; a wisely adapted 

course of history for elementary schools is now under considera- 

158 



HISTORY 159 

tion; tendencies to overemphasize the use of local history and 
sources in secondary schools have been checked; better methods 
of history teaching are gaining ground in both high school and 
college ; the demand for specially trained history teachers is grow- 
ing; better textbooks in all the fields of history have been abund- 
antly provided. 

One of the most important results of these cooperative efforts 
has recently appeared in the publication of a History Syllabus 
for Secondary Schools 1 prepared by a special committee of the 
New England History Teachers Association. This committee was 
instructed "to prepare . . . a report on practical methods of teach- 
ing history, with such topical outlines, references, and bibliographies 
as shall help teachers to put into operation such suggestions for 
reform in history teaching as may be applicable to the conditions 
in secondary schools." The committee began its work early in 
1900 before the syllabus revision committee of the Associated 
Academic Principals could organize, and issued a preliminary 
report in 1901. 

At an early date, the committee charged with the revision of 
the history syllabus for New York State determined to keep in 
touch with the work of the New England committee, and to adopt, 
so far as expedient, a report that would embody the experience 
of the best history teachers of New England. 

Through the courtesy of authors and publishers, the general 
surveys and topical outlines in ancient, European and American 
history of the syllabus prepared by the committee of the New 
England History Teachers Association 1 are presented to the teach- 
ers of New York State. Some slight but important modifications 
seemed necessary. A syllabus of English history based wholly on 
a 1 epical treatment has been prepared with the hope that topical 
teaching will thereby be promoted. There is no serious difference 
in the topics presented in the English history syllabus of the 
New England committee and in that of New York State. The 
bibliographies and references of the New England syllabus may 
be used with profit by both teachers and pupils. 

In presenting the following extended syllabus, it is not pro- 
posed to prescribe a larger amount of subject-matter as a burden 

'History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Outlining the Four Years' 
Course in History Recommended by the Committee of Seven of the 
American Historical Association by a special committee of the New England 
History Teachers Association; published by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston 
1904; published also in parts for the use of pupils; contains invaluable 
bibliographic references and suggestions for teachers and pupils. 



i6o 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



for the memory. On the contrary there has been an earnest 
effort to select such topics in the various fields as are most sus- 
ceptible and most worthy of assimilation; to present historic 
happenings in their proper perspective; to analyze historic move- 
ments and thus to show the relations of events that, to the pupil's 
mind, might seem isolated; to provide a moderately large range 
of topics not for the sake of prescription but to encourage academic 
freedom; to lead to the use of the notebook, the encyclopedia, 
the library, the atlas and collateral reading; to commend the 
good textbook not as a tyrant but as a guide. 

It is specially worthy of note that the past should be constantly 
compared with the present; that history can be assimilated only 
through the imagination; that the imagination should be helped 
by the judicious use of historic fiction, 1 source material 2 and well 
chosen pictures. 

The attention of history teachers is directed to the valuable 
helps that may be secured from the State at a trifling cost. The 
lanterns and slides for visual instruction that have been furnished 
to every school employing a superintendent may be borrowed by 
other schools. Traveling libraries, collections of photographs, 
lanterns and lantern slides are loaned by the Home Education 
Department to any academic school. 

Courses. The following courses of history in the order given 
and with the prescribed time allotments are either required or 
recommended. 





Minimum 

recitation 

time 


Maximum 

recitation 
time 


Allotted year 
of the second- 
ary course 




a Ancient history 


3 periods 

a 

week 


5 periods 

a 

week 


first 

or 

second 




b European history 


3 periods 

a 

week 


5 periods 

a 

week 


second 




c English history 


3 periods 

a 

week 


5 periods 

a 

week 


third 
or 

second 




d American history 


5 periods 

a 

week 




fourth 

or 

third 





*See "Historical fiction," History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, p. 28, 29. 
i See "Sources," Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 100-10; also, 
Historical Sources in Schools. Macmillan. 



HISTORY l6l 

i Recommended only for large high schools and academies that 
maintain four year courses in the different fields of secondary 
study: a, b, c and d. 

2 Recommended in general for high schools and required of all 

schools maintaining courses of study preparatory for the 
teachers academic certificate or for entrance to normal or 
training schools: a, c and d. 

3 Required of all schools sharing in the apportionment for non- 

resident students: c and d. 

It should be noted that the order in which the different fields 
of history are studied is most important. The courses planned 
are progressive. American history, which includes civil govern- 
ment, demands a fair acquaintance with English history, and 
English history will be much better apprehended by those who 
have had their imaginations stirred by a study of the ancient peo- 
ples. European history is recommended only for large high schools 
for two reasons : it is difficult to find time for four years of history 
in the ordinary high school program; the most essential portions 
of European history must be studied as a part of English history. 
Long experience has shown that the study of English history is 
most productive if deferred to the third high school year. 

Civics and economics as separate high school .studies are not 
recommended, though, to meet certain public needs, separate 
examinations in these subjects will still be given. Throughout all 
the courses in history comparisons should be made with present 
customs, forms of government and economic conditions. Teachers 
of American history who have not been specially prepared by 
courses in civics and history will do well to continue the use of a 
separate textbook in civics ; but the study of history and the study 
of civics should be united in a single topical course 1 and it will be 
the duty of each teacher to provide for his class a course in which 
civics and history will supplement each other. 

The courses as planned, whether they are to be taught three 
periods or five periods a week, are continuous, extending through 
a year. The skilful teacher whose recitations are limited to three 
a week will take advantage of the opportunity to secure from the 
class a larger amount of collateral reading than would be possible 
with half year courses. 

By the use of "topics for advanced pupils," the syllabus may be 
adapted almost equally well to the needs of classes whether maxi- 

1 Teachers of American history may find help in the bibliographic refer- 
ences of the syllabus of civil government. 



1 62 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

mum or minimum time is required. Among the topics assigned 
for advanced pupils have been included some based on source 
material that may profitably be used by younger pupils, provided 
the necessary time and proper library facilities are afforded. It 
is not believed, however, that any of these extra topics will prove 
so easy as to seem unworthy of attention. They may form the 
basis of much valuable composition work. 

It is not intended that every pupil or that any pupil shall be 
held responsible for every additional topic or for a majority of these 
topics. Different topics may be assigned to different pupils, to 
different groups of pupils or to some specially interested in history 
work. Many of the topics may not specially appeal to a particu- 
lar teacher or class and need not be used at all. Some of the 
topics proposed may suggest other topics more interesting to the 
class. Used with freedom, the topics will enliven the teaching; 
used thoughtlessly or blindly, they will prove more of a hindrance 
than a help. 

Though this syllabus is based on the experience of many suc- 
cessful history teachers, it is not presented as an oracle nor as a 
finality in history teaching. History as a culture study is a new- 
comer among the subjects of the secondary curriculum. Before 
every thoughtful teacher lie unexplored continents and uncharted 
seas. Within the next five years it will doubtless appear that much 
historical material now assigned for secondary study should be 
omitted or very lightly touched on. New material, better methods 
of presentation and different emphasis may be expected as teachers 
gain truer knowledge of the youthful mind and of adolescent 
interests. Specially should great effort be made to reawaken the 
dormant imagination of childhood, to encourage youthful tend- 
encies to self-activity and to vitalize historic truth. 



ANCIENT HISTORY TO 800 A. D. 

The study of history is valuable in so far as it promotes culture, 
service and progress. A narrow teaching of historic events is 
therefore almost useless. These truths are specially applicable to 
early high school work in ancient history. The immaturity of 
pupils at once demands and makes difficult the attainment of cul- 
tural results; yet if the pupil obtained nothing from ancient his- 
tory but a panorama of vivid mental pictures, an acquaintance with 
some of the heroes and patriots of the ancient world, a dawning 
consciousness of our heritage from the past, the study would be 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



163 



worth while. Somewhat more than a mental picture gallery how- 
ever may reasonably be expected. The problems appearing in 
the ancient development of popular governments are comparatively 
simple if translated into modern terms, and running comparisons 
with modern movements not only help to an understanding of 
ancient politics but stimulate interest in present civic conditions. 
The transition from the more or less local patriotic treatment of 
history in the elementary grades to the comprehensive study of 
peoples far distant in time and place will be made' easier to the 
pupil if the teacher make early and full use of maps, pictures, 
stereopticon slides and standard guidebooks. One is not likely 
here to err by excess. The wealth of illustrative material leaves 
slight excuse for faint or grossly inaccurate mental pictures of 
ancient life. 




The oriental 
nations. 



II 

Ancient Hellas: 
early develop- 
ment. 2ooo(?)- 
750 B.C. 

Ill 

State and 
national 
development in 
Greece to the 
foreign wars, 
750-500 B.C. 



r 1 



1 



Introduction: scope and course of ancient 
history. 

Egypt, 5ooo(?)-525 b.c. 

The Tigris-Euphrates valley, 5000 or ear- 
lier-538 B.C. 

Syria (I) The Phenicians. 

Syria (II) The Hebrews. 

Media and Persia, 85o(?)-5i4 B.C. 

Summary and review of the oriental na- 
tions. 



f 1 8 The land and the Aegean basin. 
j 9 The people: migration and expansion. 
J 10 The Epic or "Homeric" age, 1000-750 B.C. 
j (approximately) . 

I 11 "Greek reconstruction of early history. " 
[_ 12 The states, and the beginnings of leagues. 

f 13 Age of colonial enterprise. 

I 14 Order of political evolution. 

I 15 Growth of Sparta: a military aristocracy. 

*( 16 Growth of Athens: progress toward democ- 
racy. 

I 17 Intellectual progress of Hellas, 500 B.C. 

1. 18 Bonds of union. 



i" 



'The following general surveys and outlines of ancient European and 
American history were copyrighted 1901 and 1904 by Walter H. Cushing. 



164 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 




IV 

Foreign wars of 
the Greeks: 
independence. 
560-479 b. c. 

V 
The preeminence 
of Athens, 479- 
431 B.C. 



VI 

Wars between 
the Greek states: 
a century of 
strife, 461-362 
B.C.; the Mace- 
donian invasion. 



VII 
The empire of 
Alexander; 
"The mingling 
of the East and 
West." 
336-146 B.C. 



VIII 
Early Rome; 
and the Roman 
republic to its 
supremacy in 
Italy. 
753(?)- 26 4 B.C. 



IX 

Rome becomes 
supreme in the 
Mediterranean 
basin, 264-133 

B.C. 



f 1 9 Lydian and 
j ' Minor. 

J 20 Scythian expedition and Ionic revolt. 

I 21 The Persian invasion, 492-479 b.c. 

I 22 "The Punic invasion," 485-480 B.C.: Car- 
t thaginians in Sicily. 

f23 The Delian league and the Athenian empire, 
I 477-46i B.C. 

-{24 The Periclean age and the Athenian democ- 
racy, 461-431 B.C. 
^25 Intellectual life; the Athenian genius. 

f 26 The Athenian attempt at land empire, 461- 
445 B.C. 

27 The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B.C. 

28 The new learning. 

29 The hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 B.C. 

■{ 30 The attempted hegemony of Thebes, 371- 
362 B.C. 

31 The Western Greeks, 410-300 B.C. (ap- 
proximately) . 

32 Literature and art, 400-350 B.C. 
^33 The rise of Macedon, 359-336 B.C. 

f 34 The career of Alexander: conquests, char- 
| acter, and achievements. 336-323 B.c. 

I 35 The Hellenistic period: disintegration of 
Alexander's empire; the Hellenistic king- 
doms and Hellenistic culture. 3 2 3-1 46 b.c. 

36 Greece to Roman intervention; attempts 

at federal government. 280—200 b.c. 

37 The land and the people. 

38 Early Rome : sources of our knowledge ; the 

legends and their value. 

39 Regal Rome: government, religion, and 

society. 

40 The early republic: struggle between the 

classes ; triumph of the plebeians. 509 ( ?)- 
286 B.C. 

41 The early republic: the establishment ©f 

Rome's supremacy in Latium; wars with 
its neighbors. 5o9(?)~338 B.C. 

42 The conquest of Italy : wars with the Sam- 

nites and Greeks; organization. 338- 
264 B.C. 

'43 The struggle with Carthage for Sicily: the 
First Punic War, 264-241 b.c. 

44 "The extension of Italy to its natural boun- 

daries " ; wars in Africa and Spain. 241- 
218 B.C. 

45 The struggle between Rome and Carthage 

for the supremacy in the West : the Second 
and Third Punic Wars. 218-133 B.C. 

46 Rome becomes supreme in the eastern Medi- 

terranean: conquest of Greece and Asia. 

L 216-133 B.C. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



165 



Z-% 



iS 



General survey of the field (concluded) 



X 



f47 
48 

49 

5o 



28 



IH O 



The ancient world 
under Roman rule 
during the change^ 51 
from the republic | 



to the monarchy, 
I33-3 1 B -C- 



52 



I 



The organization of Rome's foreign con- 
quests : the provincial system. 

The effects of conquests and the provincial 
system on society, politics, and manners. 

The revolutionary attempts at reform under 
the Gracchi, 1 33-1 21 b.c. 

"The rule of the restoration"; victories of 
Marius; Social War. 121-88 B.C. 

The struggle between Marius and Sulla; rees- 
tablishment of senatorial rule. 88-79 B.C. 

Pompey and Caesar: affairs in the East and 
at Rome; Caesar in Gaul; Civil War. 
79-48 B.C. 

The rule of Caesar, 48-44 B.C. 

The struggle for the succession, 44-31 b.c. 

Roman culture and society in the "Cicer- 
onian age." 



f 56 The establishment of the empire: constitu- 
tion; frontiers. 31 B.c-14 A.D. 
•v-t- I 57 The Julian and Flavian Caesars, 14-96 a. d. 

The ancient world | 58 The Roma 5 1 ^ m P ire under the Good Em " 
j ,, -o J perors, 96-180 a.d. 

^ 59 The Roman empire under the Soldier Em- 
perors, 180-284 A.D. 
60 The Roman Empire under the Absolute Em- 
perors, 284-375 A.D. 

^ 61 The rise and triumph of Christianity. 



empire, 3 1 B.C. -3 7 5 

A.D. 



XII 

The transition 
period from an- 
cient to medieval 
historj', 376-800 

A.D. 



f 62 The invasions, and the fall of the Western 
Empire, 376-476 a.d. 

63 The West: continued invasions, and forma- 

tion of Germanic states. 476-774 a.d 

64 The East: one Emperor (Constantinople); 

anewprophet. 476-732 a.d. 

65 "The rise of the Christian Church." 

66 The growth of the Frankish power: a new 

Emperor. 486-800 a.d. 

67 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine. 



Outline of ancient history 
I The oriental nations. 

1 Introduction: scope and course of ancient history. 

a Races of men. (1) Difficulty of determining original and 
secondary races. (2) Philology and history. (3) Arbi- 
trary classification by color. 

b Caucasian or white race ; probable mixed origin and assumed 
subdivisions. 

c Location and progress of the historic nations : east to west. 

d Arbitrary divisions of ancient history: oriental, classical, 
and Germanic periods. 



1 66 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Geographic ideas of the ancients. 
B Physical geography of the East. 
C Relative value of historic studies. 

2 Egypt, 5ooo(?)-525 B.C. 

a The Nile region, (i) Physical features and their influence. 

(2) Remains of ancient civilization. 
b The people and their political history (1) Supposed origin. 

(2) Political development : Pharaohs of Memphis ; Pharaohs 
of Thebes; the New Empire — Sais. (3) Successive invasions 
of Egypt. 

c Civilization. (1) Classes and occupations; early strikes; 
political corruption. (2) Arts, sciences, and literature. 

(3) Religion. 

d Special contributions to European progress. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Accession of Psammetichus. 
B Inundations and sources of the Nile. 
I C Obelisks. 

D Ancient and modern irrigation systems. 
E The Sphinx. 
r F Sources of Egyptian history. 

3 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley, 5000 or earlier-538 B.C. 

a The land. (1) The two rivers and their influence. (2) Sources, 
remains, and relative antiquity of civilization. 

b The people. (1) Supposed origin. (2) Cities: Ur, Nineveh, 
Babylon. (3) Successive empires and wars: Chaldean (3800- 
1250 b.c); Assyrian (1250-606 B.C.); Babylonian (606- 
538 B.C.). 

c Civilization. (1) Classes and industries: mode of life. (2) Arts 
and sciences. (3) Religion and literature. 

d Special contributions to European culture. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Ur of the Chaldees. 

B The long duel between Babylon and Nineveh. 
C The uses of clay in the Tigris-Euphrates culture. 
D Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel. 
E Sennacherib and Hezekiah. 
F Capture of Samaria. 

G City of Babylon according to ancient accounts. 
H Capture of Babylon by Cyrus. 
/ The hanging gardens of Babylon, and the walls. 
J The fifth chapter of Daniel. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 1 67 

4 Syria (I) The Phenicians. 

a The land and the people, (i) Origin and character. (2) Cities: 

Tyre, Sidon. 
b Enterprises and influence. (1) Commerce: sea routes and 

colonies, Carthage. (2) Dissemination of arts and alphabet. 

5 Syria (II) The Hebrews. 

a The people and their homes. (1) Origin and character. 

(2) Successive locations: nomadic life, Egypt, Caanan. 

(3) Political development: patriarchs, judges, kings, the 
two kingdoms, the captivities, the restoration. 

b Religion, literature and world influence. 

It is suggested to the teacher that helpful studies of early patriarchal life 
may be made in the story of Abraham, and of tribal government in the 
record of the judges. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The exaltation of Tyre. 

B The capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 
C Return of the Hebrews from Babylon. 
D Idolatry among the Hebrews. 
E The sanitary features of the Mosaic law. 
F The Levites. 

G Siege of Jerusalem by Titus. 
H Oriental features in the reigns of David and Solomon. 

6 Media and Persia, 85o(?)~5i4 B.C. 

A very general" view here; more in detail under Greece. 

a The land and the people. (1) Origin and relations with neigh- 
bors. (2) Kings and their conquests: military development. 
(3) Political organization under Darius. 

b Civilization. (1) Art. (2) Religion and literature. (3) Mor- 
als. 

c Persia's contribution to European progress. 

7 Summary and review of oriental nations. 

a General features of oriental history: government, religion, 
economic life, science and arts, existing remains. 

b Comparisons and contrasts of the Nile and Euphrates cultures 
(by topics a, 6, etc., and subtopics already given in sections 
2 and 3). 

c The blending of the two cultures. (1) Entry into Egypt 
through Hyksos and Hebrews. (2) Assyria and Egypt: 
conquests. (3) Syria: mercantile exchange. 

d Transmission of culture to the west . (1) Phenicia. (2) Asia 
Minor: Lydia and Croesus. 

e Consolidation: the Persian empire. 



l68 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Accounts of the Medes and Persians found in the Bible and in Hero- 
dotus. 
B Condition of Persia after corruption had set in. 
C Coinage of the Lydians. 
D The Hittites : "The forgotten empire." 
E The source of Greek music. 

Map work: 

The oriental nations, with boundaries and dates. 

II Ancient Hellas: early development 20oo(?)~75o B.C. 

8 The land and the Aegean basin. 

a Physiography, (i) Diversity of features. (2) Climate and 
products. (3) Contrasts with seats of Eastern culture 
already studied. (4) Geographic advantages, and influence 
of the land on the people. 

b Political divisions. (1) States of the mainland. (2) The 
Island states, "Stepping-stones." 

Map work: 

Two outline maps of the Balkan peninsula, the Aegean and 
Black seas, and Asia Minor; one to show the physical 
features, the other to be kept as a progressive historical 
map throughout the study of Greece. 

9 The people: migration and expansion. 

Much of this is still debatable ground, and opinions are not settled; 
new light is constantly coming from excavations, specially in Crete. 
a "Pelasgians." 
b Early and later Aegean culture as shown by archeology: 

Tiryns and Mycenae (3d and 2d millennium B.C.). 
c Conquests by Greeks, coming in waves, i5oo~B.c. on; fusion, 

expansion. 
d Oriental influence, real and mythical. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The ancient palace. 
B The life work of Dr Schliemann. 
C Early peoples of Greece according to Herodotus and Thucydides. 

10 The epic or "Homeric" age, 1000-700 b.c. (approximately). 
a The source — Homer: historical and literary value. 

b Social and political organization: family and government. 

c Religion. 

d The Trojan War and the return of the chiefs. 

e The Dorian invasion, and the settlement of Asia Minor. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 169 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Early Greek art. 

B Homeric life as pictured in the Iliad and the Odyssey furnishes many 
valuable topics in source work. 

11 " Greek reconstruction of early history." 
a Genealogy: Hellenes and subdivisions. 

b Legends of local heroes: Heracles, Minos, Theseus, Jason, 

Oedipus. 
c The Hesiodic poems (specially The Theogony). 
d Chronology. 

1 2 The states and the beginnings of leagues. 
a The thriving city centers before 700 B.C. 
b The city state. 

c Amphictyonies. 

Map work: 

On an outline map indicate by means of colors the Delian and 
Delphian leagues. Include also principal city centers. 

Ill State and national development in Greece to the foreign wars, 
750-500 B.C. 

13 Age of colonial enterprise. 

General accounts are all long and detailed and need to be cut. This 
lesson may be well treated by classroom drill on a large board map. 
a Causes of colonization. 
b Character and organization of a colony; connection with 

mother city. 
c Chief centers. 

Map work: 

The Mediterranean basin, with principal colonies, distinguish- 
ing Ionian, Aeolian, Dorian, and AcJ^ean. 

14 Order of political evolution. , 
a Monarchy to aristocracy (oligarchy). 

b Tyrannies. , _ v 

c Democracies, or reversion to oligarchies. 
d Growth of popular discontent. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Polycrates. 
B The wooing of Agariste. - 
C The Sacred War. 
D Sicily. Naukratis and Cyrene. 

15 Growth of Sparta: a military aristocracy. 
a Place and people. 

b Institutions and government; myth of Lycurgus. 



170 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c System and aim of education ; mode of life. 
d Messenian wars; the Peloponnesian League. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Lycurgus. 

B War songs of Tyrtaeus. 
C Spartan women. 

Map work: 

Peloponnesus, showing Spartan sphere of influence, 500 B.C. 

16 Growth of Athens. Progress toward democracy 
a Place and people ; mythic monarchy. 

b Eupatrid rule: Cylon and Draco. 

c Solon "the Wise." 

d Tyranny: "Pisistratus and the Pisistratidae. 

e Cleisthenes's changes. 

17 Intellectual progress of Hellas to 500 B.C. 
a Art. 

b Poetry: the lyric age. 

c Philosophy. 

d Deepening religious sense. 

18 Bonds of union. 

a Common language and ancestry. 
b Religion: temples, oracles, festivals. 
c Amphictyonies and political leagues. 
d Greek games. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Greek oracles. 

B The Pantheon of Homeric and historic times. 
C The Athenian Constitution. 
D Solon and Croesus. 
E Eleusis and the jjiysteries. 
F Delphi and itg^r$#sthood. 

IV Foreign wars inline Greeks: independence. 560-479 B.C. 

19 Lydian r ..a Persian conquests in Asia Minor. 
Review section 7 d (2), je; and section 6. 

a P 1 jesus. 

T- 

>, Cyrus and Cambyses. 

20 Scythian expedition and Ionic revolt. 

a Darius; the northern frontier ; the Hellenic tyrants. 
b Sardis, Lade, Miletus; results. 

Map work: 

The chief Ionian cities. 

21 Persian invasion, 492-479 b.c. 

There is still danger of spending too much time on wars. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 1/1 

a Causes; resources of Greeks and Persians; expeditions sent 

by Darius (Marathon, 490 B.C.). 
b The 10 years respite, 490-480 b.c: Themistocles and 

Aristides. 
c The third expedition: Xerxes (Thermopylae and Salamis, 480 

b.c; Plataea and Mycale, 479 b.c); results. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Alcmaeonidae. 

B Monuments of victory erected by the Greeks. 
C The battle of Salamis from Greek authors. 
D Cambyses and Darius. 
E The Scythians. 
F Xerxes 's preparations. 
G "The Wars of Liberation. " 
H Aristides and Themistocles. 

22 "The Punic invasion," 485-480 b.c: the Carthaginians in 

Sicily. 
a "Western Greece": chief centers and previous history. 
b Carthage: understanding with Persia. 
c Gelon: Himera and results. 

V The preeminence of Athens, 479-431 B.C. 

23 Delian League and the Athenian empire, 477-461 b.c 
a Themistocles and the fortification of Athens. 

b Aristides and the leadership of the Asiatic Greeks. 

c Cimon and naval victories: the league becomes an empire. 

d Political parties at Athens ; attitude toward Sparta. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A For debate : the ethics of the Athenian policy. 

B The government of Athens during the period of Athenian ascend- 
ency. 
C Pausanias. 
D Athens's treatment of subject states. 

Map work: 

The Athenian empire at its greatest extent, about 456 b.c 

24 The Periclean age and the Athenian democracy, 461-431 b.c 
a Foreign policy: Egypt, Persia, Cyprus. 

b Government: magistrates and assemblies. 

c Education: the aim and the means. 

d Social life. 

e Pericles the man : his character and influence. 

25 Intellectual life; the Athenian genius. 

a Art: beautification of the city ; sculpture. 
b Literature: drama and history. 
c Philosophy. 



i^2 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Map work: 

Athens, with her fortifications, and principal buildings. 

VI Wars between the Greek states: a century of strife, 461-362 
B.C. ; the Macedonian invasion. 

26 Athenian attempt at land empire, 461-445 B.C. 
a Pericles's policy and alliances. 

b Wars with Peloponnesians and Boeotians. 
c Thirty Years Truce. 

Map work: 

Athenian empire and the states allied with Athens and with 
Sparta, 431 b.c. 

27 Peloponnesian War, 431-404 b.c. 
a Causes: resources of each side. 

b Periods. (1) Indecisive, 431-421 b.c: Cleon and Brasidas. 
(2) Sicilian expedition (with interval preceding), 421-413 
B.C.: Nicias and Alcibiades: (3) Persian activity, 413-404 
B.C.: Alcibiades and Lysander. 

c Results; political condition of Hellas. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Extracts from funeral oration delivered by Pericles. 
B Thucydides's account of the Sicilian expedition. 

Map work: 

The Syracusan campaign. 

28 The new learning. 
a Socrates. 

b The Drama (Euripides and Aristophanes). 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Alcibiades as an illustration of bis times. 
B Sophists and rhetoricians. 
C Thucydides and Herodotus compared. 

29 The hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 B.C. 
a Policy of Sparta: Lysander. 

b Wars: Agesilaus. (1) Persian: Anabasis; Antalcidas. 

(2) Domestic: Peloponnesus, Chalcidice, new Athenian 

league, Leuctra. 
c Estimate of Spartan power, and reasons for her failure to 

secure Hellenic unity. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 173 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Contrast and comparison between the first and second leagues of 

Athens. 
B Tontrast and comparison between the rule of the Four Hundred and 

the rule of the Thirt^. 
C Lysander. 
D Agesilaus. 
E Comparison of Sparta and Athens. 

30 The attempted hegemony of Thebes, 371-362 b.c. 
a Leuctra. 

b Policy of Epaminondas : Peloponnesus, Persia, Athens. 
c Man tinea and the end of Theban leadership. 

31 The western Greeks, 410-300 b.c. (approximately). 

k , . a Outline of the Sicilian history in review [see section 22]. 
b Dionysius 1. 
c Timoleon, the Liberator. 

32 Literature and art, 400-350 b.c. 

a "From poetry to prose." (1) History: (compare Xenophon 
with Herodotus and Thucydides). (2) Oratory: Lysias and 
Isocrates. (3) Philosophy: Plato. 

b Art. 

Section 32 may be treated after 33, and may then include Demosthenes 
and Aristotle, as well as Lysippus. 

33 The rise of Macedon, 359-336 B.C. 
a Hellenes and Macedonians. 

b Philip: training, character, aggressions. 

c "The end of Greek freedom," 338-336 b.c. (i) Chaeronea. 
338 b.c. (2) Relations established by Congress of Corinth 
(with comparison of Congress of Corinth, 481 b.c). (3) His- 
tory of the idea of Hellenic conquest of Persia, Cimon to 
Philip. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The development of military formation among the Greeks. 
B Pelopidas. 
C Epaminondas. 
D Timoleon. 

E The Athens of Demosthenes. 
F Extracts from the orations of Demosthenes. 

VII The Empire of Alexander ; "The Mingling of the East and West." 
336-146 B.C. 

34 The career of Alexander, 336-323 b.c. 
a Early life. 

6 The conquest of Asia Minor and Egypt . 



174 NE W YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c The conquest of Persia and the farther East. 

d The character of Alexander ; estimate of his work. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The military system of Alexander. 
B Special battles. 
€ The Persian empire. 
D Alexander's siege of Tyre. 
E Alexander's conquest of Egypt 
F The murder of Clitus. 
G The mutiny of Alexander's army. 
H Alexander's plans. 
/ Death and character~of Alexander. 

Map work: 

On an outline map trace the route of Alexander's march, 
marking his battles and the most important cities founded 
by him. 

35 The Hellenistic period, 323-146 B.C. 

a The disintegration of Alexander's empire: the wars of the 

Diadochi, 323-280 B.C. 
b The Hellenistic kingdoms. (1) Egypt and the Ptolemies. 

(2) Syria and the Seleucidae. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Invasion of the Gauls. 
B Rhodes and Pergamon. 
C Hellenism: society, literature, and art. 

36 Greece to Roman intervention; attempts at federal govern- 

ment 280-200 B.C. 
a Achean League (Aratus). 
b Its conflict with Sparta (Cleomenes) leads first to Macedonian, 

then to Roman, intervention. 

VIII Early Rome; and the Roman republic to its supremacy in 
Italy. 753 (?)-264 B.C. 

37 The land and the people. 

a The land: the peninsula of Italy and its relations to the 
Mediterranean basin; climate and products of Italy. 

b The people: remnants of early peoples; the Italian stocks; 
the invading nations (Etruscans, Gauls, Greeks, and Pheni- 
cians) . 

Map work: . * 

On outline maps mark: (1) mountain system; (2) rivers; 
(3) the political divisions 



ANCIENT HISTORY 175 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Etruscans. 
B The Greek colonies in Italy. 
C The Gauls. 

38 Early Rome: sources of our knowledge. 
a The legends and their value. 

& Buildings and other remains, (i) The walls. (2) The cloaca. 

39 Regal Rome: organization. 

a The government: king, senate, assemblies. 
b The people: patricians, plebeians. 
c Religion. 

Topic for advanced pupils : 
The Roman family. 

40 The early republic : the struggle between the classes ; triumph 

of the plebeians. 509(?)-286 B.C. 

a The establishment of the Republic. 

b The economic and social condition of the plebeians, leading 
to the establishment of the tribunate. 

c The laws of the Twelve Tables. 

d The admission of the plebeians to the magistracies (Licinian 
laws). 

e The admission of the plebeians to the assemblies (Hortensian 
law). 

/ An outline of the Roman constitution in 286 B.C.: magis- 
trates, senate, assemblies, functions of each (use textbook 
and dictionaries of antiquities). 

41 The early republic: the establishment of Rome's supremacy 

in Latium. 509(?)-338 b.c. 
a Wars with neighboring nations, Volscians, Aequians, and 

Etruscans. 
b The invasion of the Gauls and the sack of Rome. 
c Rome and the Latins. 

42 The conquest and organization of Italy, 338-264 b.c. 
a The Samnite wars, 343-264 b.c. 

b The war with the Greeks (Pyrrhus), 280-272 b.c. 
c The organization of Italy: colonies; roads. 
d The military system. 

Map work: 

On outline map mark (1) the following colonies: Ostia, 
Norba, Placentia, Cremona, Ariminum, Luceria, Venusia, 
Beneventum, Paestum, Parma. (2) the Roman roads 
before 133 b.c. 



I76 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The colonial system 
B Roman road making. 

C Livy's account of the secession of the plebeians. 
D Livy's account of the Decern virate. 
E Battle of Caudine pass. 
F Roman army. 

IX Rome becomes supreme in the Mediterranean basin, 264-133 B.C. 

43 The struggle with Carthage for Sicily: the first Punic War, 

264—241 B.C. l ^ i 

a Carthage. 
b The war. 
c Sicily, the first Roman province 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The victory of Duilius. 
B The defeat at Drepana. 
C The fleet built by private subscription. 
D The treaty at the end of the First Punic War. 

44 "The extension of Italy to its natural boundaries"; wars in 

Africa and Spain. 241-218 B.C. 
a Wars of Rome in the North (Gallic an djllyrian) , 229-222 B.C. 
b Sardinia and Corsica. 
c Wars of the Carthaginians in Africa and Spain (Hamilcar). 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The acquisition of Sardinia. 
B The siege of Saguntum. 

45 The struggle between Rome and Carthage for the supremacy in 

the West: the second and third Punic Wars. 218-133 B.C. 
a Hannibal's march into Italy. 
b The war in Italy. (1) Successes of Hannibal: three great 

battles won ; three great cities captured. (2) Final success 

of the Romans ; loyalty of the Latins. 
c The war in Africa and in Spain. (1) The Scipios in Spain 

218-212 b.c. (2) The battle of Zama, 202 b.c. (3) The treaty. 
d The establishment of the supremacy of Rome in the western 

Mediterranean, 201-133 b.c. (i) The Third Punic War, 149- 

146 b.c. (2) Subjugation of Spain, 133 b.c. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The character of Hannibal. 
B Hannibal's passage of the Alps. 
C The battle of Trasimenus. 
D The battle of Cannae. 

E The treaty at the end of Second Punic War 
F The siege of Syracuse. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 177 

Map ivork: 

Trace the route of Hannibal's invasion. 

46 Rome becomes supreme in the eastern Mediterranean, 216- 

133 B.C. 

a The acquisition of Greece. (1) The condition of Greece. 

(2) The First and Second Macedonian Wars (Cynoscephalae, 

197 B.C. (3) The Third Macedonian War, 171-168 B.C. 

(4) Macedonia a Roman province; destruction of Corinth, 

, 146 B.C. 

b The acquisition of Asia. (1) War with Antiochus, 192-189 
B.C.; settlement of the East. (2) The kingdom of Pergamon, 
133 B.C. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
The Eastern States and their rulers. 

X The ancient world under Roman rule during the change from the 
republic to the monarchy, 133-31 B.C. 

47 Organization of Rome's foreign conquests. 

a The provinces to 133 b.c. enumerated: Sicily, Sardinia and 
Corsica, Hither Spain, Farther Spain, Illyricum, Macedonia 
and Achaia, Africa, Asia. 

b The client states enumerated: Numidia, Libya, Egypt. 

c The provincial system. 

Map work: 

Mark the boundaries of the Roman provinces in 133 B.C. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
A provincial governor of the worst type as described by Cicero. 

48 The effects of conquests and the provincial system on 

society, politics, and manners. 
a Agrarian conditions. 

b The classes: optimates, populares, equites. 
c The government: senate, magistrates, assemblies. 
d The introduction of Hellenism; art; poetry. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Cato the Elder. 
B Scipio Africanus 
C Scipio Aemilianus. 
D The drama. 

E Introduction of foreign luxuries. 
F Supremacy of the senate. 

49 Revolutionary attempts at reform under the Gracchi, 133- 

121 B.C. 



178 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

a Tiberius Gracchus: attempts at agrarian reform, 133 b.c. 
b Gaius Gracchus: attempts at a revolution in the Constitu- 
tion, 123 B.C. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The position of slaves. 
B Lives of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. 

50 "The rule of the Restoration," 121-88 b.c. 
a The war with Jugurtha, 111-105 b.c. 

b The invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones (Marius), 113-101 

b. c. 
c Internal affairs. (1) The rule of the nobles. (2) Attempts 

at reform by Saturninus and Glaucia and by Drusus. 
d The Social War, 90-88 b.c. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Life of Marius. 
B War with Jugurtha. 

51 The struggle between Marius and Sulla; reestablishment of 

senatorial rule. 88-79 B - c - 
a The revolution of Marius and Sulpicius, 88 b..c. 
b The rule of the Marian party (Cinna), 87-84 b.c. 
c The struggle between the parties of Marius and Sulla: the 

first civil war, 84-82 b.c. 
d The rule of Sulla, and the Sullan Constitution, 82-79 b.c. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The life of Sulla. 
B The character of Sulla. 

52 Pompey and Caesar, 79-48 b.c. 

a Affairs in the East. (1) The condition of the East; (Mith- 
ridates). (2) The campaigns of Sulla, 86-84 B.C. (3) The 
campaigns of Pompey and his reorganization of the East, 
66-63 B.C. 

b Affairs at Rome. (1) The conspiracy of Catiline, 66-63 
b.c. (2) The first Triumvirate, 60 b.c. 

c Caesar in Gaul, 58-51 b.c. (i) The condition of Gaul. (2) 
Caesar's campaigns. (3) Organization of conquests. 

d Civil war (Pharsalus, Zela, Thapsus, Munda), 49-48 b.c. 

Map work: 

Mark the boundaries of the new provinces. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Cicero as a public man. 
B Character of Pompey. 
C Caesar's army. 



ANCIIiNT HISTORY 179 

D The conspiracy of Catiline. 
E Caesar in Gaul 

53 The rule of Caesar, 48-44 b.c. 

a The condition of the Roman world 
b The reforms of Caesar. 
c The estimate of Caesar. 

54 The struggle for the succession, 44-31 b.c. 

a Civil war: the overthrow of the liberators (Philippi, 42 b.c). 
b The rivalry of Octavius and Antony: the West against the 
East (Actium, 31 b.c). 

55 Roman culture in the "Ciceronian Age." 

a Literature. (1) Cicero. (2) Sallust. (3) Caesai. 
b Education. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Cicero as seen in his letters. 
B Character of Antony. 

XI The ancient world under the Roman empire, 31 B.C.-375 A.D. 

56 Establishment of the empire, 31 b.c. -14 a.d. 

a The constitution: survivals of the republican system; the 

princeps; changes in the government of the provinces and 

the city of Rome. 
b The frontiers. (1) The East. (2) Alpine region. (3) The 

Northwest (Teutoberg forest, 9 a.d.). 
c Literature of the Augustan age. (1) Virgil. (2) Horace. 

(3) Livy. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Provinces under Augustus. 
B Augustus as a builder. 
C Character of Augustus. 
D The worship of the emperor 

Map work: 

Mark the provinces; distinguishing between the imperial 
and the senatorial. 

57 The Julian and Flavian Caesars, 14-96 a.d. 

.J The constitution: growth of monarchical ideas. 

b The empire. (1) The East. (2) The German frontier. (3) 

Britain. 
c Emperors. 

i The condition of the empire and society. (1) Life in the 
towns: (a) appearance; (6) government; (c) amusements 
(d) Pompeii; (e) the Graffiti; (f) country houses. (2) L 
in the provinces. (3) Travel and correspondence. 
Commerce. 



l80 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The destruction of Jerusalem. 
B The classes in the towns. 
C The finances of the towns. 

D The education of the Roman in imperial times. 
E Roman amusements. 
F The eruption of Vesuvius, 79 a. d. 
G Peculiar customs of the Romans. 
H The burning of Rome. 
/ Roman trade routes. 

58 The empire under the "Good Emperors", 96-180 a.d. 
a The government and administration. 

b Extension and consolidation. (1) Trajan (Dacia and Meso- 
potamia), 98-117 a.d. (2) Hadrian (travels and fortifica- 
tions), 117-38 a.d. (3) Marcus Aurelius (Marcomanic War), 
161-80 a.d. 

c The condition of the empire in the second century. 

d " The Silver Age of Literature." 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Correspondence of Trajan and Pliny. 
B Marcus Aurelius. 
C Life of Pliny the Younger. 
D Forum of Trajan. 
E Hadrian's villa at Tivoli. 

Map work: 

Mark the additions of Trajan. Indicate the fortifications 
of Hadrian. 

59 The Roman empire under the soldier emperors: a century of 

revolution. 180-284 a.d. 
a Typical emperors. (1) Septimus Severus, 193-2 11 a.d. 

(2) Caracalla (extension of the Roman franchise), 211-17 a.d. 

(3) Elagabalus, 218-22 a.d. (4) Aurelian, 270-72 a.d. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The new Persian Empire. 
B The conquest of Palmyra. 
C The wall of Aurelian. 
D The arch of Septimius Severus. 

60 The Roman empire under the absolute emperors, 284-375 A - D « 
a Absolutism: Diocletian, reorganization of the empire. 

b Constantine, transfer of the capital to Constantinople. 
c The provincial organization. 
d Bureaucracy of officials. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Society in the fourth century a.d. 



ANCIENT HISTORY l8l 

Map work: 

Mark the prefectures and dioceses. 

6 1 Rise and triumph of Christianity. 

a Attitude of Roman government toward Christianity. 
b The persecutions. 

c The triumph and establishment of the Church. 
d The organization of the Church. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Christianity in the Roman Empire. 
B The contribution of Christianity. 
C The catacombs. 

XII Transition period, 376-800 A.D. 

62 Invasions, and the fall of the western empire, 376-476 a.d. 
a The Germans. 

b The invasion of the West Goths (Alaric), 376-410 a.d. ; sieges 

of Rome by Alaric. 
c The invasion of the Vandals (Geiseric), 378-455 a.d.; the 

sack of Rome. 
d The invasion of the Huns (Attila), 378-453 a.d.; battle of 

Chalons, 451 a.d. 
e The last Roman emperor in the West, 476 a.d. 
/ The causes of the decline of Rome. 
g The influence of Rome. 

63 The West: continued invasions, and formation of Germanic 

states, 476-774 a.d. 
a Condition of Europe in 476 a.d. 
b Italy: Ostrogoths, 493-552 a.d. (Theodoric); Lombards, 

568-774 A.D. 

c Britain: the Anglo-Saxons. 

d Gaul: the Franks. 

e Spain: "decaying kingdom of the Visigoths" (to 711 a.d.), 

f Results of invasions: fusion of the two peoples (language, 

law). 
Topic for advanced pupils: 

Theodoric. 
Map work: 

Map showing routes of migrations and final places of settle- 
ment. 

64 The East: one emperor (Constantinople); a new prophet. 

476-732 A.D. 
a Justinian: conquests, and codification of the law. 
b The rise of Mohammedanism : Mohammed ; his religious sys- 
tem; Saracen conquests. 



1 82 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Iconoclastic controversy. 
B Belisarius. 

C The siege of Constantinople by the Saracens. 
D The Saracen conquest of Spain. 
E Important teachings of the Koran. 

65 "The rise of the Christian Church." 

' a Early organization of the Church ; growth of the Papal power 

to 600 A.D. 

b Differences and divisions. 
c Monasticism. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Pope Gregory the Great. 

B The life of St Columban and the work of the Irish monks. 
C Influence of the early Church. 
D The Benedictine rule. 

66 The growth of the Frankish power; anew emperor. 486-800 

A.D. 

a Clovis and the Merovingians. 

b The Carolingians as "mayors"; battle of Tours, 732 a.d. 

c The Carolingians as kings ; Lombardy. 

d Charlemagne: the king crowned emperor, 800 a.d. 

Map work: 

Empire of Charlemagne. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Boniface and his work. 
B The Salic law. 
C The conversion of Clovis as told by Gregory of Tours. 

67 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine. 



MEDIEVAL AND MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 800-1900 A. D. 

The study of medieval history in the high school presents pecu- 
liar difficulties. Historically considered the Middle Ages lie farther 
from modern life than the age of the Antonines or the age of Pericles. 
Both teacher and student find but little in present day life which 
can be used to make clear the life of the Middle Ages. In the United 
States the church and the university are the only great medieval 
institutions which have survived, and these are so different in their 
present condition that we get only a poor illustration of their place 
in medieval times. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 1 83 

Therefore, because the student gets so little apperceptive material 
for this work from his own environment the teacher should make 
special efforts to furnish the students' imagination with an abund- 
ance of concrete material out of which rich and full mental pic- 
tures can be constructed. Typical, as well as important events, 
customs, and institutions should be fully and vividly described. 
The best means of producing mental pictures are the well written 
text, carefully selected references, the teachers' descriptions, pic- 
tures, photographs of medieval remains and of paintings of medieval 
scenes. Again, this strange history may be made more real and 
interesting by relating it, as far as possible, to the lives of the great 
men of that age. 

It is well to make clear how feudalism made national life almost 
impossible in the Middle Ages, and how, in the absence of the print- 
ing press and of means of rapid communication, national feeling 
grew slowly in a people scattered over great areas. 

In passing from the Middle Ages to modern life the student must 
not only keep in mind the great events which marked the transi- 
tion, but also the change in ideas and movements which accom- 
panied the transition. Such a view will show the student that the 
ending of one period and the beginning of another can not be accur- 
ately marked by a date, but that the germs of the new period are 
in the old. 

Modern history compels the student to carry in mind two series 
of facts, the events belonging to the development of the leading 
European nations and the movements common to Europe as a 
whole. As the student makes his way into the 18th and 19th cen- 
turies industrial conditions and commercial rivalry become more 
and more important. 

In order to preserve continuity in the study the student must 
constantly trace events and movements back to their roots. In 
order to mark progress in history the student must constantly 
point out the differences between the period under discussion and 
earlier periods. 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 




The Carolingian 
empire and the 
rise of feudalism, 
to the 
ioth century. 



II 

The papacy and 
the beginning 
of the new 
German-Roman 
empire, to 1254. 



Ill 

The formation 
of France, to 
1328. 

IV 
The East and 
the crusades 
1096-1270. 



V 

Christian and 

feudal 

civilization. 



VI 

The era of the 
Renaissance, 
14th and 15 th 
centuries. 



*5 



VII 
The Protestant 
Revolution and 
the wars of 
religion 
1517-1648. 



9 

10 



13 



1 The development of the Christian church. 

2 The consolidation of the Frankish kingdom, 
to 768. 

3 The wars and conquests of Charlemagne. 

4 The founding of the empire of Charlemagne, 
800 A. D. 

5 The decline of the Carolingian empire, and 
the formation of separate monarchies. 

6 The beginnings of feudalism. 

7 Germany and Italy, to the death of Otto 
the Great, 973. 

8 The struggle over the right of investiture, to 
1122. 

Frederick 1 (Barbarossa), 1152-90. 

Innocent 3 and his position in Christen- 
dom, 1198-1216. 

Frederick 2 and the fall of the Hohen- 
staufen. 

The rise of the Capetian dynasty, to 1180. 

France under Philip Augustus and St 
Louis, 1 1 80- 1 2 70. 
I 14 Philip the Fair, 1285-1314, and Pope Boni- 
l_ face 8, 1294-1303. 

f 15 The East before the crusades. 
[ 16 The first crusade, 1096-99. 
J 17 The kingdom of Jerusalem and the second 
1 crusade. 

I 18 The third and fourth crusades. 
1 19 The end of the crusades, 
f 20 The church in the 13th century. 
I 21 Medieval schools and universities. 
J 22 The life of the military classes. 
{23 Peasant life. 
i 2 4 Towns and town life. 
I 25 Medieval commerce. 

26 Germany and the Empire, 1273-1493. 

27 France in the 14th and 15th centuries; the 

Hundred Years War. 

28 The consolidation of Spain into a powerful 
monarchy. 

Political and social conditions in Italy in 
the 14th and 15 th centuries. 

The beginning of the Renaissance in Italy ; 
the revival of learning. 

The fine arts during the Renaissance. 

The age of the great discoveries and inven- 
tions. 

33 Reforming movements of the 15th century. 

34 The eve of the Protestant revolt in Ger- 

many. 

35 The Lutheran revolt, to 1525. 

36 Charles 5 and the Protestant revolt in Ger- 

many, 1526-55. 

37 The Protestants in Switzerland, to 153 1. 

38 John Calvin and his work. ) 

39 Rise of Protestantism in France, to 1572. \ 

40 France under Henry 4. 

41 The Catholic reformation and the Jesuits. 

42 The revolt of the Netherlands, 1568-1648. 



29 



30 



31 

3 2 



TM-_ ti.: 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 



185 



General survey of the field — (concluded) 



VIII 
The ascendency 
of France and 
the age of 
Louis 14. 

IX 
The rise of 
Russia, Prussia, 
and of colonial 
interests. 
The age of Fred- 
erick the Great. 



X 

The French Revo- 
lution, 1 7 89-9 5. 



XI 

Napoleon Bona- 

Sarte and the 
fapoleonic 
wars, 1795-1815. 



XII 

Growth of nation- 
ality, democracy, 
and liberty in the 
19 th century. 



f44 Richelieu and the establishment of ths 
absolute monarchy. 

45 Louis 14 and his court. 

46 The people ; Colbert and his reforms. 

47 Louis 14's wars. 

48 The formation of the Russian empire ; Peter 

the Great. 

49 The expansion of Russia in the 18th century. 

50 The beginnings of the Prussian state, 1640- 

1740. 

51 Frederick the Great, 1740-86. 

5 2 Frederick the Great in time of peace. 

53 The expansion of England. 

54 The abuses and evils of the Old Regime. 

55 Growth of a revolutionary spirit before 1789. 

56 Louis 16 and attempts at reform. 

57 The beginning of the Revolution, and de- 

struction of the Old Regime. 
"j 58 The attempt to make a constitution, 1789-91. 

59 The failure of the Constitution and fall of 

the monarchy, 1791-92. 

60 The first French republic and the war 

against Europe, 1792-93. 

61 The Reign of Terror, 1793-94. 
'62 France in 1795. 

63 General Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt 

1796-99. 

64 Bonaparte as consul, 1799- 1804. 

65 The Napoleonic empire, 1804. 

66 Napoleon's campaigns from Austerlitz to 

Tilsit, 1805-7. 

67 The national uprisings against Napoleon, 

1808-12. 

68 The downfall of Napoleon, 1813-15. 

f 69 Congress of Vienna and Metternich's sys- 
tem of absolutism 

70 Paris revolutions of 1830 and 1848 

71 France under Napoleon 3 and the third 

republic 

72 Unification of Italy 

73 Struggle for liberty and unity in Germany, 

181 5-58 

74 Foundation of the German empire under 

Bismarck and William 1 (1858-88) 

75 Austria-Hungary under Francis Joseph 1, 

1848- 

76 Turkey and the Eastern Question 

77 Development of Russia in the 19th century 

78 Expansion of Europe 

I 79 Material progress of the 19th century 



0.3 
a v 

9i X 



Outline 
I The Garolingian empire and the rise of feudalism. 

1 The development of the Christian Church. 

a Why the early Christians were persecuted. 
b The influence of Constantine on the Church. 



1 86 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c The first great popes: Leo the Great, 440-61; Gregory the 
Great, 590-604. 

d Growth of the power of the popes, to the 7th century. 

e The rise of Mohammedanism. 
It will be seen that this and the following section do not fall within the 
limits of the period under consideration (a.d. 800-1900), yet a knowledge of 
them is absolutely essential. Many teachers may prefer to impart this 
knowledge by an informal lecture or talk ; and once more attention is called 
to the fact that an oral narrative sometimes gives the best possible supple- 
mentary material. Or a review may be made of sections 61, 65 and 66 of 
the "Outline" of ancient history. 

2 The consolidation of various German tribes into the Frankish 

kingdom, to 768. 

a The wars and conquests of Clovis and his sons. 

b The conversion of the Franks to Christianity and the impor- 
tance of that event. 

c The rise of the Mayors of the Palace and the overthrow of 
the Merovingian dynasty. 

d The rule of Pippin, 752-68, and its importance. 

3 The wars and conquests of Charlemagne. 

a The interference in Lombardy and its results, 772-74. 
b The subjugation of the Saxon people, 772-802. 
c Minor wars. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Personal characteristics of Charlemagne. 
B The ordeal as a legal proof of guilt or innocence. 

4 The founding of the empire of Charlemagne, 800 a.d. 
a The imperial coronation in Rome and its meaning. 

b The methods employed to govern and administer the empire. 
c The encouragement of learning, literature, and art. 

Map work: 

Boundaries of the empire of Charlemagne. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Charlemagne's conception of the duties of an emperor (as shown 

in the capitulary of the year 802). 
B The Palace School. 

5 The decline of the Carolingian empire, and the formation of 

separate monarchies. 
a Character of Louis the Pious as a reason for the decline of 

the empire. 
b The quarrels of Louis the Pious with his sons. 
c The events that led to the treaties of Verdun and of Mer- 

sen; terms of the treaties. 
d The last Carolingians in Germany and in France. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 1 87 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
The Strasburg Oaths. 

Special map work: 

Boundaries of the three kingdoms at the treaty of Verdun. 

6 The beginnings of feudalism. 

a Definition of the terms benefice and vassalage, and explana- 
tion of the fief as the central institution of feudalism. 

b Lord, vassal, and subvassal, and their respective duties, 
rights and privileges. 

c Importance of feudalism from a military, financial, adminis- 
trative, and social point of view. 

II The papacy and the beginning of the new German-Roman 
empire. 

7 Germany and Italy, to the death of Otto the Great, 973. 
a Stem-duchies and first elective kings (Henry 1, 919-36). 
b Revival of the empire by Otto the Great, 962. 

Special map work: 

Map showing the stem-duchies and the boundaries of the 
empire of Otto 1. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Vikings or Norsemen: their raids and their settlements. 
B Comparison of Charlemagne and Otto 1. 

8 The struggle over the right of investiture, to n 22. 

a The papacy in the 9th and 10th centuries; beginning of 
interference by Otto 1. 

b Church and state under Henry 3 ; his character and plans ; 
prevalent evils in the church. 

c Causes and beginnings of the struggle for the right of in- 
vestiture: the youth and education of Henry 4; increasing 
power of the papacy, 1059-73; importance of the ceremony 
of investiture. 

d The struggle at its hight, 1073-77: phases of the Saxon re- 
bellion and effect on Henry's policy; demands of Gregory 7 ; 
the ban ; necessity for its removal; the pilgrimage to Canossa. 

e The end of the struggle : its course to the death of Gregory 7 ; 
last years of Henry 4's reign; Henry 5 and Pope Paschal 2; 
the concordat of Worms, 112 2. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The titles and pretensions of a medieval emperor. 
B The quarrel between Gregory 7 and Henry 4, as seen through their 

own letters. 
C Hildebrand's ideas of the powers of a pope. 



l88 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

9 Frederick i (Barbarossa), 1152-90.*. 

a Beginning of the struggle with the Lombard communes: 

rise of the Italian communes; the Roncaglian decrees; the 

sieges of Milan. 
b Beginning of the struggle with the popes: quibbles with 

Adrian 4 ; election of Alexander 3 ; council of Pavia. 
c The end of Frederick's struggles in Italy: the Lombard 

League; the peace of Venice; Henry the Lion. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Besancon episode between Frederick Barbarossa and Adrian 4. 
B Arnold of Brescia. 

10 Innocent 3 and his position in Christendom, 11 98-1 2 16. 
a Innocent and Aragon. 

b Innocent and England. 
c Innocent and France. 

d Innocent and the empire: the rival rulers of Germany and 
the battle of Bouvines, 12 14. 

11 Frederick 2 and the fall of the Hohenstaufen. 

a Reign of the Emperor Henry 6: the acquisition of Sicily; 
capture of Richard of England; Henry's ambitious plans. 

b Frederick 2 and Gregory 9 : causes of enmity ; the crusade 
and its results; progress of hostilities to the death of Greg- 
ory 9, 1241. 

c Frederick 2 and Innocent 4: Frederick's misfortunes and 
death; the last of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Personality of the Emperor Frederick 2 ; his appearance, ability 

as a ruler, legislation, religious views, amusements, interest in 

science and art. 
B A medieval troubadour. 

Ill The formation of France, to 1328. 

12 The rise of the Capetian dynasty, to 1180. 
a The great fiefs of France. 

b The accession of Hugh Capet, 987. 

c The reigns of Louis 6, 1108-37, an d Louis 7, 1137-80. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Norman conquest of England; William in Normandy; preparations 
for conquest; the invasion; results of conquest for France. 

13 France under Philip Augustus and St Louis, n8o>-i2 7o. 
a The extension of the king's domain. 

b The development of the central government. 
c St Louis as a king and a saint. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 189 

Special map work: 

France under Philip Augustus, showing chief divisions of 
France and territory acquired during his reign. 

14 Philip the Fair of France, 1285-13 14, and Pope Boniface 8, 

1294-1303. 
a Power of the Papacy ; causes of the quarrel between Boniface 

and Philip. 
b Progress of the quarrel. 
c Death of Boniface. 
d The power of the king at the close of the quarrel; the 

estates-general of 1302. 
e The Papacy at Avignon. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Career of Rienzi at Rome. 

• 

IV The East and the crusades, 1096-1270. 

15 The East before the crusades. 
a The Eastern empire. 

b Saracen civilization. 

c The coming of the Seljuk Turks. 

Topics for advanced, pupils ; 
A Constantinople in the Middle Ages. 
B Medieval pilgrimages. 
C Liutprand's account of his mission to Constantinople. 

16 The first crusade, 1096-99. 

a General causes and occasion for a crusade. 
b The council of Clermont, 1095. 
c The armies on the march. 
d Achievements of the crusade. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
The speech of Urban 2. 

17 The kingdom of Jerusalem and the second crusade. 

a The rulers, form of government, and general condition of 
the kingdom of Jerusalem. 

b The fall of Edessa and the preaching of St Bernard. 

c The second crusade : the expeditions of Conrad 3 of Germany 
and Louis 7 of France. 

d The religious-military orders: Templars, Hospitallers, Teu- 
tonic Knights. 

1 8 The third and fourth crusades. 

a The third crusade: its occasion and results. 

b The fourth crusade and its diversion from its purpose. 



I9O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c The Latin empire of Constantinople: its history and its fall, 
1204-61. 

Map work; 

Outline map showing routes of first and third crusades. 

19 The end of the crusades. 
a The crusades of St Louis. 

b Fall of Acre and end of Christian rule in the East. 
c Results of the crusades. 

Topics for advanced pupils; 
A The experience of a medieval crusader: motives ;' vows ; privileges; 

preparation; dress; arms; route; battles and sieges; benefits and 

disadvantages of the experience. 
B A Knight Templar: aims and occupations; decline and end of the 

order. 
C The career and character of Saladin. 
D The Children's Crusade. 
E The East after the crusades. 

V Christian and feudal civilization. 

20 The church in the 13th century. 
a The secular clergy. 

b The monks. 

c The religious orders: Franciscans and Dominicans. } 

d Heretical sects; the Albigensian crusade. 

Topics for advanced pupUs; 
A A Gothic cathedral; e.g. Notre Dame, Amiens, Chartres, Salis- 
bury, Cologne. 
B A day in a Benedictine monastery. 

21 Medieval schools and universities. 

a Subjects of study ("the seven liberal arts"). 
b Monastery and cathedral scTiools. 
c The great universities. 

Topic for advanced pupils; 
The life of medieval students. 

22 The life of the military classes. 

a The castle. . 

b Medieval warfare. 
c Chivalry. 

Topics for advanced pupils; 
A Description of some particular castle, e.g. the Tower of London, 
Chateau Gaillard, Salzburg, Nuremberg, Wartburg, Kenilworth, 
Edinburgh, Chillon. 
B A medieval tournament. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY I9I 

23 Peasant life. 

a The manorial system. 
b The medieval agriculture. 
c Village life. 

24 Towns and town life. 
a The rise of towns. 

b The gilds. 

c Outward appearance of a medieval town: walls, buildings, 
streets. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
A study of some town as illustrated by its existing remains, e.g. 
Rouen, Chartres, Bruges, Nuremberg, Toledo, Florence, Perugia, 
Siena. 

25 Medieval commerce. 

a The principal commodities. 
b The great routes of trade. 
c Markets and fairs. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Travel in the Middle Ages. 
B Marco Polo. 

VI The era of the Renaissance, 14th and 15th centuries. 

26 Germany and the Empire, 12 73-1493. 

a Rise of Austria and of the house of Hapsburg: Rudolph of 
Hapsburg; the powers of the emperor and of the seven 
electors; the Golden Bull of 1356; the Hapsburgs and their 
policy. 

b Eastward expansion: the mark of Brandenburg; the Teu- 
tonic Knights. 

c The rise of the cities ; the Hanseatic League. 

d Rise of the Swiss confederation. 

e Charles the Bold of Burgundy. 

f The weakness of the Empire at the end of the 15th century. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The attitude of the emperors toward Italy (e.g. Rudolph, Henry 

7). 
B Legend of William Tell. 

Special map work: 

Sketch map of Switzerland showing the three original Forest 
Cantons and the other cantons added, to 15 13. This map 
will prove useful also for the period of the Protestants in 
Switzerland, section 37. 



I92 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

27 France in the 14th and 15th centuries; the Hundred Years 

War. 
a The English occupation of France. 
b The driving out of the English. 
c Louis 11 and his work. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Joan of Arc. 

28 The consolidation of Spain into a powerful monarchy. 
a The Christian recovery of Spain. 

b The union of Castile and Aragon. 
c The conquest of Granada and treatment of the Moors. 
d Growth of the royal power, to the opening of the 16th cen- 
tury. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Cid. 
B The Alhambra. 

29 Political and social conditions in Italy in the 14th and 15th 

centuries. 
a Florence and Venice. 
b The Papal monarchy. 
c The two Sicilies. 
d The rule of the despots. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
The Condottieri. „. • 

30 The beginning of the Renaissance in Italy; the revival of 

learning. 
a The spirit and meaning of the Renaissance; its many-sided 

character. 
b Italian literature: Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio. 
c The revival of learning: the Greek teachers; the work of 

Petrarch and Boccaccio; the recovery, editing, and printing 

of classical texts. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
The life of Dante. 

31 The fine arts during the Renaissance. 
a The great architects. 

b The chief sculptors. 

c The Florentine and Venetian painters. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The building of the dome of Brunelleschi. 
B The arts at the court of Lorenzo the Magnificent. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 193 

In the study of this and the preceding section the pupil should confine 
his attention to a few of the most prominent men. In connection with 
section 3^, photographs should be used as liberally as possible to illus- 
trate the art of the period. 

32 The age of the great discoveries and inventions. 

a European conditions at the end of the 15th century which 
led to discoveries and inventions. 

b Portuguese discoveries to the east. 

c Spanish discoveries and conquests in the western world. 

d Mechanical inventions of the era and how they helped dis- 
covery and conquest. 

e The new ideas in astronomy: Copernicus and Galileo. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The life and struggles of Christopher Columbus. 
B A comparison between the isthand 16th centuries and the 19th 

century, 
C Invention of printing. 

Map work: 

Sketch map showing the voyages of discovery of Columbus, 
Vasco da Gama, Cabot and Magellan. 

33 Reforming movements of the 15th century. 

a Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel: what each attempted 

and why they failed. 
b John Hus. 
c Savonarola. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Wyclif's teachings and how they spread. 

VII The protestant revolution and the wars of religion, 15 17-1648. 

34 The eve of the Protestant revolt in Germany. 

a Germany at the opening of the 16th century: the Emperor 
Maximilian; the electors; the princes; the towns; the diet. 
b The Church: conditions that encouraged heresy. 
c Erasmus and the German humanists. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Erasmus's criticism of the Church. 
B Ulirich von Hutten. 

Map work: 

Lands ruled over by Charles 5. 

35 The Lutheran revolt, to 1525.. . 

a Martin Luther, to the Diet of Worms, 1521: his early life; 
the question of the indulgences and the posting of the theses, 



194 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

1 5 1 7 ; the Leipzig disputation, 1519; the burning'of the Papal 

bull and canon law, 1520. 

b The Emperor Charles 5 and the Diet of Worms, 1 5 2 1 : election 

of the emperor ; Luther before the diet ; the edict of Worms. 

c Fanaticism and revolution in Germany: Hutten and Sickin- 

gen; the Peasants War ; the Anabaptists. 
Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Luther at the Wartburg. 
B Luther's translation of the Bible. 

36 Charles 5 and the Protestant revolt in Germany, 1526-55. 

a The Diets ; Charles's rivalry with Francis 1 and his attitude 

toward the Protestants, 1526-46. 
b Attacks of the Turks. 
c The emperor and the Smalkald League, 1547; Maurice of 

Saxony. 
d The religious peace of Augsburg, 1555: the limited nature of 

its tolerance. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Italian wars of Charles 5 with special reference to the battle of 

Pavia (1525) and the sack of Rome (1527). 
B The gold of the Indies, and how it came into the treasury of 

Charles 5. 

37 The Protestants in Switzerland, to 1531. 

a Ulrich Zwingli and the Swiss Protestants, to the time of the 

Marburg Conference. 
b The Marburg Conference and its failure, 1529. 
c Religious war in Switzerland ; terms of settlement. 
d Zwingli's ideas as to government of church and of state. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Condition of Switzerland at the beginning of the 16th century. 

38 John Calvin and his work. 

a Early history, character, and beliefs of John Calvin, to 1536. 
b Calvin's activity in Geneva, 1536-64. 

c Influence of Calvin and Geneva on Germany, France, Hol- 
land, Scotland, England and America. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
A Calvin and Servetus. 
B Comparison of the character and ideas of Luther and Calvin. 

39 Rise of Protestantism in France, to 1572. 

a Beginnings of a Protestant party: Jacques Lefevre; perse- 
cutions under Francis 1, 1515-47. 
b Increase and organization of the Protestants under Henry 2, 

J 547-59- 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 105. 

c Civil wars under Charles 9: Catherine de' Medici and the 
Guises; Coligny; how the Huguenots gradually gained 
privileges. 

d The Massacre of St Bartholomew, 1572. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Catherine de' Medici: her life, character, and policy. 
B The character and influence of Coligny. 
C Attitude of Europe toward the massacre. 

40 France under Henry 4. 

a Henry of Navarre's struggle for the crown: battle of Ivry, 
his abjuration. 

b The Edict of Nantes, 1598. 

c Henry 4 and Sully: reforms in finances and agriculture. 

d Henry 4 's foreign policy and death; his character; his popu- 
larity then and now. 

e Troubles after Henry 4's death; the states-general of 1614. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
French settlements in North America. 

41 The Catholic reformation and the Jesuits. 

a The Jesuits: Loyola's character and training; organization, 
objects and methods of the Society of Jesus ; their work. 

b The work of the Council of Trent, 1545-63. 

c How the Catholic church was reformed in discipline and 
gained new power. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Jesuit missionary efforts. 
B The services of Jesuit missionaries in North America. 

42 The revolt of the Netherlands, 1 568-1648. 

a The Netherlands to 1556: religious, political, social and 

economic conditions; the rule of Charles 5. 
b Philip 2 and the outbreak of discontent: political, religious 

and economic causes of the revolt. 
c The leadership of William of Orange. 
d How the Dutch won their independence. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The siege of Leyden. 
B Character of William the Silent. 
C Dutch life at the opening of the 17th century. 
O - Spanish Armada. 

43 The Thirty Years War, 1618-48. 

a The strife of parties in Germany ; the Donauworth disturb- 
ances; the land question involved in the "ecclesiastical 
- reservation." 



.196 • NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b The Bohemian election and the throwing from the window ; 
the Winter King ; battle on the White Hill. 

c The Danish period: Christian 4 and Mansfeld. 

d Gustavus Adolphus.the champion of German Protestantism: 
his campaigns and their results ; his death. 

e Wallenstein: his influence, dismissal, return and assassina- 
1 tion. 

f French aims and interference. 

g The Peace of Westphalia : its terms and international import- 
ance. 

h Social and economic effects of the war on Germany. 

Map work: 

Sketch map showing Europe after the peace of Westphalia. 

Topic for advanced pufiils: 
The reform of the calendar in 1582. 

VIII The ascendancy of France and the age of Louis 14. 

44 Richelieu and the establishment of the absolute monarchy. 

a Richelieu: rise to power; character; aims; his relations 

with Louis 13. 
b Richelieu and the Huguenots. 
c Richelieu and the nobles : how he destroyed their power and 

strengthened the monarchy ; the intendants. 
d Richelieu and the Thirty Years War. 
e Mazarin: causes of his unpopularity; revolt of the nobles 

and lawyers; how he carried out Richelieu's work; foreign 

policy; what is meant by an " absolute monarchy . " 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Plots against Richelieu. 
B The French Academy. 
C The siege of La Rochelle. 

45 Louis 14 (1661-1715) and his court. 

a Louis the man: early education and training; character, 
abilities, deficiencies and aims. 

b Louis 14 the king: idea of government and of a king's power; 
what he expected of the nobles ; new royal palaces ; occupa- 
tions and amusements at Versailles. 

c Art and literature in the age of Louis 14; effect of Louis's 
paternalism. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Costumes in the age of Louis 14. 
B Louis 14's morning reception and toilet. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY IQJT 

46 The people; Colbert and his reforms. 

a The people: their burdensome taxes; corruption of officials. 
b Colbert: his services to Mazarin; how he tried to lighten the 
burdens of the people; how he encouraged industries, com- 
merce, and colonization. 

c Colbert and Louis 14: differences in their aims. 

d The revocation of the Edict of Nantes; its effect on the 
prosperity and foreign relations of France. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Dragonnades. 
B Overthrow of Fouquet. 
C How Louis 14 and Colbert governed New France. 

47 Louis 14's wars. 

a War against the Dutch, 1672-78: its causes; Louis's in- 
vasion of Holland; murder of De Witt, and rise of William 
of Orange ; what Louis gained by the war. 

b War of League of Augsburg, 1689-97: causes, political and 
religious; Louis's devastation of the Palatinate; why 
England took part in the war; battles of the Boyne and La 
Hogue; terms of the peace of Ryswick, 1697. 

c The War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-13: Carlos 2 of 
Spain; his vast territories; interests of the European 
nations in the question of the succession ; Louis 14's ag- 
gressive measures; formation of the Grand Alliance; Marl- 
borough's campaigns in the Netherlands and on the Danube ; 
capture of Gibraltar; Queen Anne's War in America; terms of 
the peace of Utrecht. 

d France at the close of Louis 14's reign: condition of the 
French people at the close of the wars ; increased taxation ; 
famine of 1709; position of France in Europe and America 
at the close of the wars; Louis 14's unlamented death, 
17 15 ; how Louis 14's reign prepared the way for the French 
Revolution. 

Map work: 

Sketch map showing the territorial terms of the peace of 
Utrecht. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Battle of Blenheim. 
B Effect of the wars of Louis 14 on France. 



198 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

IXjThe rise'of Russia, Prussia and colonial interests. The age of 
Frederick the Great. 

48 The Formation of the Russian empire ; Peter the Great. 

a Russia before Peter the Great: the Slavic races and charac- 
teristics; oriental influences on Russian character and de- 
velopment ; Ivan the Terrible ; social and political condition 
of Russia at the accession of Peter. 

b Peter the Great, 168 9- 1725: struggle for the throne ; travels 
ambitions, and difficulties; Peter's western friends; his 
character. 

c Internal reforms of Peter the Great: army; navy; dress 
and customs ; church ; the new capital. 

49 The expansion of Russia in the 18th century. 

a In the Baltic: importance of the Baltic sea; its special value 
to Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Prussia, Russia; Charles 12 
of Sweden; his character and ambitions; his struggle with 
Peter the Great; battles of Narva and Poltava; Charles 12's 
mad career and death ; decline of Sweden ; Russia's foothold 
on the Baltic; St Petersburg. 

b In Turkey and the Black sea: Peter's gain and loss of Azov; 
death of Peter the Great ; his importance in Russian history ; 
Catherine 2, 1762-96; her wars with Turkey and conquest 
of the north shore of the Black sea. 

c In Poland: internal disorders and weakness of Poland; 
Catherine 2's share in the three partitions of Poland, 1772, 

i793» 1795- 
d In Siberia: early explorations and settlements. 

Special map work: 

Sketch map showing the gains in territory made by Russia 
in the 18th century. 

50 The beginnings of the Prussian state, 1640-1740. 

a The Hohenzollerns before 1640: how they acquired their 
three territories (Brandenburg, Prussia, Cleves) ; geographic 
position of these territories and its future significance; the 
task of the Hohenzollerns. 

b Frederick William, the " Great Elector," 1640-88: character; 
gains of territory by Treaty of Westphalia; his position in 
his own lands and in Europe. 

c How the Elector of Brandenburg acquired the title of " King 
in Prussia," 1701. 

d Frederick William 1. 1713-40: how he made Prussia a mili- 



EUR0PKAN HISTORY 1 99 

tary state and a prosperous country; his foreign policy; 
the "tobacco parliament " ; good and bad side of his character. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Origin of the Hohenzollern family. 

B Frederick William's reception of the Salzburg Protestants. 
C Frederick William's true and legendary character. 

51 Frederick the Great, 1740-86. 

a The youth of Frederick the Great. 

b The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-48: death of Em- 
peror Charles 6 and Frederick William 1 in 1740; the Prag- 
matic Sanction; Maria Theresa and her difficulties; Fred- 
erick the Great and his ambitions; his invasion of Silesia; 
interests of France and England ; results of the war. 

c The interval of peace: reforms in Prussia and Austria; Maria 
Theresa's secret alliances and their purpose; Frederick's 
perilous position; his change of policy and alliance with 
England. 

d The Seven Years War, 1756-63: how Frederick defended 
Silesia; his occupation of Saxony; the battles of Rossbach, 
Leuthen and Zorndorf ; Frederick's critical position in the 
last years of the war; change in Russia's policy; effect of 
the war on the rivalry between Prussia and Austria. 

e Frederick's later years: his share in the first partition of 
Poland; Frederick's character and death, 1786. 

Special map work: 

Sketch map showing the extent of Prussia's territory at the 
death of Frederick the Great. 

52 Frederick the Great in time of peace. 

a Personal appearance; habits and popularity of "Father 
Fritz." 

b Frederick as musician, author and philosopher; life at 
Sans Souci; Voltaire's visits and quarrels. 

c Frederick's measures for the welfare of his people. 

d Frederick a typical "enlightened despot": his idea of a 
ruler's duty; comparison of Frederick with Joseph 2 and 
Catherine 2 ; the advantages and disadvantages of govern- 
ment by "enlightened despots." 

e Frederick's place in history : his importance in Prussian and 
in German history; Frederick a national hero. 

f German literature in the age of Frederick the Great. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Frederick and Voltaire as typical representatives of the 1 8th century 
B Joseph 2 as an enlightened despot. 



20O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

53 The expansion of England. 

a In North America: settlements at Jamestown, Plymouth, 
and Boston; conquest of New York; characteristics of the 
English colonies in America; struggle between England and 
France for North America; England's gains by the peace of 
Utrecht, 17 13; Wolfe and the capture of Quebec, 1759; 
the peace of Paris, 1763; how England lost her Thirteen 
Colonies ; the share of France in the American Revolution. 

b In India : English trade settlements in India ; French settle- 
ments and policy toward the natives; struggle between 
England and France for India; the "Black Hole"; Clive 
and the battle of Plassey, 1757; Warren Hastings and the 
English government of India. 

c How the wars in Europe were connected with those in 
America and India. 

d Decline of France in the 18th century. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A What were the differences between the French and English col- 
onies in North America? 
B John Law and the Mississippi Bubble. 

X French Revolution, 1789-95. 

54 Abuses and evils of the Old Regime. 

a Inherent weaknesses of an absolute monarchy; incapacity, 
folly and indifference of Louis 15; reckless extravagance; 
lettres de cachet. 

b Survival of feudal abuses : lack of uniform laws and adminis- 
tration ; feudal privileges of nobility and higher clergy with- 
out corresponding duties; absenteeism. 

c Political and social evils: taxation; taille and gabelle ; op- 
pression of government officials. 

d Economic evils: lack of roads, of freedom of work, and of 
commerce; poverty and hardships of the peasants and 
parish priests. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Society and life in Paris before 1789. 
B The army and its officers before 1789. 
C Decline of respect and love of the people toward the king during 

reign of Louis 15. 
D Origin and justification of the system of privilege. 

55 Growth of a revolutionary spirit before 1789. 

a The Parlements of the 18th century: how they called atten- 
tion to the existing evils and proposed "fundamental laws. " 



Kl'ROPEAN HISTORY 201 

b Influence of the writers: Voltaire's attack on the church; 
Rousseau's Social Contract; Montesquieu's Spirit of the 
Laws; the Encyclopedists; the new school of economists. 

c The effect of the American Revolution. 

d How the people came to realize the evils of the Old Regime ; 
the desire for liberty, equality and fraternity. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Influence of England on the growth of revolutionary ideas in 

France. 
B Admiration of the French for Benjamin Franklin. 
C Expulsion of ths Jesuits from France. 

56 Louis 16 (1774-93) and attempts at reform. 

a Louis 16's character; comparison with his grandfather; his 

marriage with Marie Antoinette. 
b Turgot's ideas and reforms (1774-76); why his reforms were 

opposed by every class of society ; Turgot's dismissal. 
c Attempted reforms of Necker and Calonne; the Assembly 

of Notables, 1787. 
d Impossibility of financial reform; growing demand for a 

meeting of the Estates-General. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Beaumarchais. 

57 The beginning of the Revolution and destruction of the Old 

Regime, 1789. 

a The Estates-General of 1789: Sieyes's pamphlet, public 
opinion, and the cahiers; meeting of the Estates-General at 
Versailles, May 5, 1789; how should it vote; the "National 
Assembly" and "Tennis Court Oath" (June 20). 

6 Fall of the Bastile (July 14); its real and legendary im- 
portance. 

c Decrees of Aug. 4; establishment of a national guard. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Character and policy of Mirabeau. 
B What people in England thought of revolution in France. 

58 The attempt to make a constitution, 1789-91. 

a The "Declaration of the Rights of Man," and the division 
of France into departments. 

b Position of the king: the veto question; scarcity of bread; 
"To Versailles," Oct. 5. 

c Financial measures 1 — assignats and confiscation of church 
property; civil constitution of the clergy and the "non- 
jurors"; emigration of the nobles. 



202 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

d The flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791), and its conse- 
quences; unpopularity of Marie Antoinette. 

59 The failure of the Constitution and fall of the monarchy, 
1791-92. 

a The Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1, 1791-Sep. 20, 1792): 
hostility of Jacobin and Girondist parties; decline of the 
assignats; opposition of the clergy; weakness of the king; 
continued emigration of nobles. 

b Interference of Europe in the French Revolution: the 
Declaration of Pillnitz; its effect on feeling in France; 
decree against the emigres; declaration of war against Aus- 
tria; decree of "the country in danger"; the "federates" 
of July 14, 1792, and the Marseillaise; manifesto of the Duke 
of Brunswick. 

c Insurrection of Aug. 10 and its results. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
Why the French people hated Marie Antoinette. 

60 The first French republic and the war against Europe, 1792-93. 
a The advance of the invaders : feeling in Paris ; Marat and the 

newspapers; the September massacres; the cannonade of 
Valmy, Sep. 20, 1792. 

b Establishment of the Republic: meeting of the National 
Convention; the three parties and the leaders; the mon- 
archy ; proclamation of the Republic and the ' ' Year 1 " ; 
trial and execution of the king. 

c The spread of the Revolution ; victories and conquests of the 
"volunteers of 1792"; how the revolutionary ideas spread 
into other countries ; how they were checked ; Dumouriez. 

d The Committee of Public Safety and expulsion of the Girond- 
ists (June 2, 1793). 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Cause of the September massacres. 
B Trial and execution of Louis 16. 

61 The Reign of Terror, 1793-94. 

a Opposition to the Revolution: peasants in Brittany and 
La Vendee ; alliance with England ; Charlotte Corday. 

b The guillotine and its victims. 

c The Reign of Terror: the revolutionary calendar and wor- 
ship of Reason; the three factions of the Mountain (Robes- 
pierre, Hebert, Danton) ; character and rule of Robespierre; 
the festival of the Supreme Being. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 203 

d The "fall of Robespierre, July 27, 1794: reaction after the 
Reign of Terror. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Madame Roland. 
B Charlotte Corday. 
C The revolutionary calendar. 

XI Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic wars, 1795-1815. 

62 France in 1795. 

a France and Europe: successes of the French against Eng- 
lish, emigres, and Dutch (the "Batavian republic"); peace 
with Spain and Prussia, 1795. 

b Beneficial progress achieved in France during six years of 
revolution. 

c The Constitution of 1795 or the "Year 3": the "Directory"; 
unpopularity of the Convention; Bonaparte's "whiff of 
grape shot. " 

d Napoleon Bonaparte's early life and opportunity: nation- 
ality; education; boyish ambitions and occupations; his 
part in the siege of Toulon ; marriage ; personal appearance 
and habits; his opportunity in 1795. 

63 General Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, 1796-99. 

a Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy, 1796-97: why Bona- 
parte was given the command; how he encouraged his sol- 
diers ; how the French army differed from the Austrian and 
Sardinian armies ; battles of Lodi and Areola ; siege of Man- 
tua; fate of Venice; treaty of Campo Formio, 1797; the 
Cisalpine Republic; Bonaparte's reception on his return to 
Paris. 

b The Egyptian expedition : its purposes and the causes of its 
failure; how it illustrates Bonaparte's character and plans. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Bonaparte's treatment of the conquered Italians. 
B Bonaparte's plans of conquest in the Orient. 

64 Bonaparte as consul, 17 99-1 804. 

a The coup d'etat of 1799 (18th Brumaire) : what happened in 
France while Bonaparte was in Egypt ; his reception in Paris 
on his return ; the coup d'etat; constitution of the Consulate ; 
how the First Consul kept the real power in his own hands. 

b Bonaparte's second campaign in Italy, 1800-1 : battle of 
Marengo; Moreau at Hohenlinden; peace with Austria at 
LuneVille (1801) and with England at Amiens (1802). 



204 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c The interval of peace (1801-3) and reconstruction of French 
institutions: the Concordat; decrees in favor of emigrant 
nobles ; renewal of old habits and society ; the Code Napoleon 
and its importance; schools, scholars, and the Legion of 
Honor; Bonaparte's colonial projects; Louisiana. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Bonaparte's reconstruction of Germany. 
B How the United States secured Louisiana. 
C Bonaparte's idea of good society. 

65 The Napoleonic empire, 1804. 

a Royalist plots against Bonaparte: the execution of the Due 
d'Enghien and its effect on Europe. 

b Restoration of the empire: Napoleon 1 the "successor of 
Charlemagne" ; how old Europe regarded the new emperor. 

c Renewal of war: Malta; occupation of Hanover; coast 
blockade; changes in the dependent kingdoms; prepara- 
tions for the invasion of England; Napoleon's weakness on 
the ocean; the battle of Trafalgar, 1805. 

66 Napoleon's campaigns from Austerlitz to Tilsit, 1805-7. 

a Campaign against Austria, 1805: capitulation of Ulm; 

battle of Austerlitz; end of the Holy Roman Empire; 

Francis 2, "Emperor of Austria"; the Confederation of the 

Rhine. 
b Campaign against Prussia, 1806: battle of Jena. 
c Campaign against Russia, 1807: battle of Eylau; terms of 

the treaty of Tilsit. 
d Napoleon's "continental system": purpose; difficulty in 

execution ; its effect on the European powers. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
The effect of Napoleon's continental system on the United States. 

67 The national uprisings against Napoleon, 1808-12. 

a The Spanish revolt, 1808-9: importance of Spain and Por- 
tugal to Napoleon's plans ; Joseph's troubles ; Napoleon in 
Spain; how the opposition to Napoleon in Spain differed 
from previous opposition. 

b The Austrian revolt, 1809: Austria's hopes; battle of 
Wagram; Austria's humiliation; Napoleon's second mar- 
riage; his annexations; position in Europe in 18 10; elements 
of weakness in his empire. 

c Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 181 2: purpose, causes of 
failure; its effect on Napoleon's power. 

d The Prussian rising, 1813: social and military reforms in 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 205 

Prussia; Frederick William 3's proclamations; beginning of 
the "War of Liberation." 

Map work' 

Sketch map of Europe showing Napoleon's empire and de- 
pendent states in 18 10. 

68 The downfall of Napoleon, 18 13-15. 

a Leipzig, 1813: importance of this battle for Napoleon and 

lor Europe. 
b Elba, 1814: invasion of France by the allies; exhaustion of 

France ; desertions from Napoleon ; Napoleon's abdication ; 

how he lived at Elba. 
c Waterloo, 1815: Napoleon's return and reception; the 

"Hundred Days"; the battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815; 

Napoleon's second abdication. 
d St Helena, 1815-21: how Napoleon passed the days of his 

exile ; his character ; his place in history. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A How far was Napoleon favored by circumstances? 
B Napoleon's writings. 
C What in his career did Napoleon regret ? 
D Napoleon's hold on his soldiers. 

XII Growth of nationality, democracy and liberty in the 19th cen- 
tury. 

69 The congress of Vienna and Metternich's system of absolutism. 
a Forces in the development of Europe in the 19th century: 

nationality; popular sovereignty and constitutional govern- 
ment ; equality ; personal liberty ; the press ; industrial and 
commercial progress; colonial expansion; European con- 
gresses. 

b The congress of Vienna, 1814-15: principle of legitimacy; 
territorial problems and their settlement; constitutional 
arrangements ; failure of the congress to take account of the 
new forces in the development of Europe in the 1 9th century. 

c Metternich's system of absolutism, 1815-48: aims of Metter- 
nich and Czar Alexander; the Holy Alliance; struggles 
against absolutism in Spain, Germany and Italy. 

Mapjvork: 

Sketch map of Europe in 18 15 showing the territorial settle- 
ments of the Congress of Vienna. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna. 
B Origin of the Monroe Doctrine. 



206 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

In the 19th century the nations of Europe have come into closer contact 
with each other, and their history becomes more and more interwoven; this 
is partly the result of the introduction of railroads, steam vessels, and mag- 
netic telegraph, and the daily newspaper. This fact has led some historians 
to treat the 19th century chronologically, showing this close interrelation; 
this method is perhaps more scientific and scholarly, but also more difficult. 
It is simpler and easier for young students to follow the development of but 
one nation at a time. This topical method is the one followed in this out- 
line. 

70 The Paris revolutions of 1830 and 1848. 

a France after the restoration of the Bourbons : comparison of 
France in 1789 and in 1815; the Charter; Louis 18; Charles 
10; reactionary measures. 

b The July Revolution in Paris, 1830; democracy and the 
press; Louis Philippe, "King of the French"; his charac- 
ter and reign ; effect of the revolution on Belgium and Poland. 

c The February Revolution in Paris, 1848. 

d The second republic, 1848-52: what the socialists wanted; 
what the people of France wanted; Louis Napoleon, his 
character and ambitions. 

7 1 France under Napoleon 3 and the third republic. 

a The second empire, 1852-70: Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of 
Dec. 2,1852; its democratic character; mistakes of Napoleon 
3's foreign policy; the Franco-Prussian War; the surrender 
at Sedan, 1870. 

b The Paris Commune, 187 1. 

c The third republic, 1870- ; Thiers; the Constitutional Laws ; 
difficulties of the Third Republic ; reasons for its stability. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 

A Gambetta. 

B The pope and the third republic. 

C The present government of the third republic. 

72 The unification of Italy. 

a State of Italy in 1815: Italy a "geographical expression"; 
effects of Napoleon's conquests and reforms; Austrian pos- 
sessions and influence in Italy. 

b Struggles against Austrian absolutism, 1815-48: the Car- 
bonari; Mazzini; the revolution of 1848; Charles Albert and 
the Constitution ; failure of the first war against Austria. 

t Union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel 2 (1849-78) : position 
of Piedmont in Italy ; Cavour's aims and diplomatic achieve- 
ments; the war of 1859 with Austria and its results; Gari- 



IiUROrKAN HISTOI'Y 20J 

baldi's career and additions to the kingdom of Italy; the 
Roman question; final union of Italy, 1870. 

d The Papacy: how its power was affected by the union of 
Italy; "the prisoner of the Vatican" ; Leo 13 and his policy. 

e The kingdom of Italy since 1870: parliamentary govern- 
ment ; economic distress and emigration ; colonial failures. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The march of "The Thousand. " 
B Napoleon 3 's policy toward Italy. 
C Garibaldi's career in America and Italy. 
D Vatican Council, 1869-70. 
E Present government of Italy. 

Map work: 

Sketch map of Italy in 1870, showing, with dates, the ad- 
ditions to Piedmont since 18 15. 

73 The struggle for liberty and unity in Germany, 1815-58. 

a The German Confederation of 18 15: its defects and weak- 
nesses ; Metternich's influence ; why Austria and Prussia were 
rivals ; Prussia's customs union (zollverein) and its importance. 

b The revolutions of 1848: growth of liberalism since 18 15 ; at- 
tempts to suppress it; effects of the Paris revolution of 1848 
on events in Prussia, Austria, Hungary and Italy. 

c First attempts at German unity: the Frankfort Parliament 
and its failure; Prussia's humiliation and isolation. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
March Revolution in Berlin, 1848. 

74 The foundation of the German empire under Bismarck and 

William 1 (1858-88). 

a Preparation for conflict: reorganization of the Prussian 
military system; Bismarck's earlier career, his character, 
and policy of "blood and iron"; his victory over the Prus- 
sian Parliament. 

b Triumph of Prussia over Austria: the Schleswig-Holstein 
War, 1864; the Austro -Prussian War of 1866; end of the 
German Confederation; the North German Confederation, 
1867; Austria's position after 1867. 

c The Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71: causes; German vic- 
tories; proclamation of the New German Empire; "Em- 
peror William 1"; Alsace-Lorraine. 

d Germany since the Franco-Prussian War: the Triple Alli- 
ance ; William 2 ; German colonial policy ; the power of the 
Social Democrats. 



208 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Comparison of French and German preparations before the war of 

1870. 
B Bismarck as a statesman. 

C The principles, leaders, and power of the Social Democrats in Ger- 
many. 

75 Austria-Hungary under Francis Joseph 1, 1848- 

a Various races in Austria-Hungary: their characteristics and 
ambitions; the Pan-Slavic movement. 

Map work: 

Sketch map of Austria-Hungary showing the various races 
and where they live. 

b The revolutions of 1848: flight of Metternich; accession of 
Francis Joseph; revolts in Bohemia and Hungary; Hun- 
garian Constitution of 1848; suppression of these revolts. 

c Establishment of the Dual Monarchy, 1867: decline of Aus- 
tria's influence in Germany and Europe after the revolu- 
tions of 1848; effect of the Prussian and Italian wars of 
1866; restoration of the Hungarian Constitution; estab- 
lishment of the Dual Monarchy and the Compromise (Aus- 
gleich) of 1867. 

d Austria-Hungary since 1867: acquisition of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina; Austria's interests in the Balkan peninsula; 
internal difficulties in the Austro -Hungarian government. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Kossuth's career in Hungary and America. 
B Present government of Austria-Hungary. 

76 Turkey and the eastern question. 

a The Ottoman Turks: their conquest of Constantinople, 1453 ; 
later gains and losses of territory; extent of the Ottoman 
empire in 18 14; its government; the subject peoples ruled 
by the Turks ; why this rule has been hated. 

b The War of Greek Independence, 1821-29: the kingdom of 
Greece and its subsequent history. 

c The Crimean War, 1854-56: Russia's ambitions; "The Sick 
Man of Europe"; causes and results of the war. 

d The Russian -Turkish War of 1877-78: revolts from Turkish 
rule; the "Bulgarian atrocities"; Russia's demands and at- 
tempt at enforcement; Congress of Berlin (1878) and its 
settlement of the Eastern Question. 

e Turkey and the Balkan states today: their ambitions and 
troubles; the Macedonian question; the Armenian ques- 
tion; policy of England and of Russia in the Near East. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 20Q 

Map work: 

Sketch map showing the states of southeastern Europe at 
the present day. 

77 Development of Russia'nT'the 19th century. 

a Alexander 1, 1801-25: French influence in Russia under 
Catherine 2 ; Russia's part in the Napoleonic wars ; Alex- 
ander i's early liberal and later reactionary policy. 

b Nicholas 1, 1825-55: his character, and domestic policy; 
beginning of the Slavophil movement; the Polish revolt of 
1830; effects of the Crimean War on Russia. 

c The liberal movement since the Crimean War : Alexander 2 ; 
emancipation of the serfs and its effect; other liberal re- 
forms; Polish revolt of 1863; Nihilists and their methods; 
policy of " Russianization" and its results. 

d The expansion of Russia toward the Pacific: the trans- 
Siberian railroad. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Jews in Russia. 
B The Siberian exile system. 

C The present condition of the peasants in Russia. 
D The "Russianization" of Finland. 
E The censorship of the press in Russia. 

78 The expansion of Europe. 

a Revival of interest in colonial expansion toward the close of 
the 19th century. 

b European discovery and partition of the African continent: 
Livingstone and Stanley ; Egypt and the Suez canal ; Algiers ; 
the partitioning of 1884; the Boer War and its results. 

c Europe in Asia and the Far East: English in India and in 
the Straits Settlements; China's condition; her cessicis to 
European nations; Japan as a wovld power; her war with 
China; shall China be partitioned? 

d The Anglo-Saxons in Australasia and the Pacific: the voy- 
ages of Captain Cook in the 18th century; English settle- 
ment at Botany bay; discovery of gold in Australia; the 
Australian Commonwealth, 1901; Hawaii and the Philip- 
pines. 

e Comparison of the colonial power and possessions of England/ 
France, Germany, and Holland. 

Map work: 

Sketch map showing England and the principal English 
colonies at the present day. 



2l6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Special map work: 

Sketch map showing European colonies and spheres of in- 
fluence in Africa. 

Topic for advanced pupils: 
How England governs her colonies. 
79 The material progress of the 19th century. 

a The Industrial Revolution : its effect on manufactures, com- 
merce, population and everyday life. 

b Inventions and improvements in means of transportation. 

c Inventions and improvements in means of communication 
and of the spread of knowledge. 

d Changes in the art of war and attempts at prevention of war. 

e Discoveries promoting the health and comfort of mankind. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The penny post. 

B The average circulation of your daily newspaper. From what for- 
eign cities does the current issue contain despatches? 

ENGLISH HISTORY 

English history is recommended as a study for the third year of 
the high school course, and may profitably be pursued throughout 
an entire year. English history stands next to American in close 
interest to us, because more American institutions may be traced 
to England than to any other country. For this reason a knowledge 
of English history is necessary to a thorough understanding of our 
own. The influence which the rivalry of England with France and 
Spain had on the exploration and occupation of America, that of 
the shifting political conditions in England from 1600 to 1700 on 
immigration, the share which the Petition of Right and the Bill of 
Rights had in shaping the first 10 amendments to our Constitution; 
these are instances where the development of our own institutions 
can not be understood well without knowing English history well 
also. 

It is recommended that the history be studied first as a narrative 
in chronologic order of succession; that as the study of each 
period is concluded, a careful reexamination of the period be made 
topically as outlined in this syllabus, and that lastly, topics of pri- 
mary importance, like Parliament, religion, naval power, com- 
merce, manufacturers and popular customs shall be reviewed 
separately to note the changes and the development of the Eng- 
land of today from the England of the past. 

The maps suggested in the syllabus should each be carefully 
drawn by the student in connection with his chronologic study or 



ENGLISH HISTORY 



211 



his first topical review, using the maps to illustrate and fix the facts 
then under discussion. Other maps should be studied to recall the 
extent and the power of England's rivals among the nations. The 
frequent use of pictures as illustrative material is urged. The 
teacher should also see that no student confines himself to any one 
textbook, for the work is better understood and better remem- 
bered by obtaining the views of different authors. 

Two hundred periods may well be given to English history itself ; 
but some teachers who can avail themselves of the maximum time 
allotment may find it advantageous to use about 80 periods for a 
short survey of general European history before entering on the 
more limited field. 



s 








"3 


*^ to 








51 






General 


survey of the field 


a x 


5 

. 
















. 




(^ 








PM 








f 1 The land. 


2 


5 


I Britain 




| 






to 




-j 2 Early Britain. 


I 




449 A.D. 




[ 3 Roman Britain. 


2 



16 



II Saxon England 
449—1066. 

L 

III Norman England <( 
1066— 1154. [_ 



IV England under thei 
Plantagenets 1154-1485. I 



V Tudor England, -{ 
1485-1603. i 



VI The Puritan revolu- 
tion and the royalist reac- 
tion, 1603-88. 



1 Saxons and Angles. / 

2 The Saxon supremacy. ( 

3 The struggle against invasions. 

4 Establishment of Christianity. 

5 Government and life in Saxon 

England. 

1 Establishment of Norman rule. 

2 The Church and the crusades. 

3 Life of the feudal period. 

1 England and France. 

2 Ireland, Wales and Scotland. 
Constitutional development. 
The Wars of the Roses. 

The Church. 

Commerce and manufactures. 
Life in Plantagenet England. 
Establishment of centralized mon 

archy. 
Extension of national power abroad. 
The Church of England. 
The development of trade and col 

onies. 
Life in Tudor England. 
The division between kings and- 

Parliament. 
Civil war and commonwealth. 
Restoration and Revolution. 
England and the continent. 
Ireland. 

Commerce and colonies. 
Religious history. 
Life and literature. 



212 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



"3 

3 u 
.a 

°£ 
« a> 

O . 


General survey of the field — (concluded) 


"3 

s 8 


16 
19 


VII Constitutional 
monarchy 1688-1820. 

VIII The British Empire" 
1820— 1905. 


r 1 Establishment and development of 
constitutional monarchy. 

2 Relations with Scotland and Ireland ; 

the Jacobites. 

3 Conflicts with^France on three conti- 

nents. 

4 The colonies. 

5 Manufactures and commerce; the 

industrial revolution. 

6 The Wesleyan movement and other 

reforms. 

7 National life, learning and literature. 

1 Parliamentary reform. 

2 Government in England at the pres- 

ent time. 

3 Taxation and trade. 

4 Industrial progress. 

5 Colonies. 

6 Foreign affairs. 

7 Ireland. 

8 Literature and science. 

9 Social conditions. 


2 
I 

4 
3 

3 

2 

1 
2 

2 
2 
2 

4 
2 
1 
2 
2 



I Britain to 449 A.D. 



Outline 



Britain, the land. 

a Situation. '; 

b Physical features. 

c Resources. 

Map showing the chief physical features and natural resources 

of Great Britain. 
Early Britain. 

a The earliest inhabitants and the traces left by them. 
b Celtic tribes: characteristics and customs of the Britons; 

the Druids and their influence; trade and travel between 

Britain and the continent. 
Roman Britain. 
a The Roman conquest: Caesar's invasions and results; the 

real conquest. 
b Roman rule: Suetonius and the destruction of the Druids; 

Agricola ; extent of Roman rule ; effects of Roman rule. 
c Withdrawal of the Romans: causes; remains of Roman 

occupation. 
Map showing Roman roads, towns and walls. 
Topics for advanced pupils: 

A A picture of Britain gained from Caesar's Commentaries. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 213 

B Survivals of Celtic customs, institutions and language. 

C How a Roman road was built. ] 

D Description of the Roman walls in Britain. 

II Saxon England. 449-1066 

1 Saxons and Angles. 

a The people: their European home; customs, institutions. 
b The conquest: causes of the invasion; manner of coming; 

destruction of Roman and Celtic institutions; sections of 

Britain occupied. 

2 The Saxon supremacy. 

Development of the Saxon kingdom : fusion among the tribes ; 
Egbert ; supremacy of Wessex ; character of the union estab- 
lished by Egbert. 

Map showing political and racial division of Britain about 
600 A.D. 

3 The struggle against invasions. 

a The Northmen: their early home, race, manner of life, 
their enterprise and daring in colonizing; the invasion of 
England. 

b Great Saxon leaders : Alfred; treaty of Wedmore ; the Dane- 
law; Edgar; Dunstan. 

c The Danish kings: renewed attacks and successes of the 
Danes ; dominions and government of Sweyn and Canute. 

d Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwin. 

e Harold: his difficulties; claim of William of Normandy; 
the battle of Senlac. 

Map of England in Alfred's day. 

4 Establishment of Christianity. 

The early English church : Augustine ; the Roman and Irish mis- 
sionaries ; council of Whitby ; monasteries and abbeys ; life 
of the monks, their routine industries, schools, hospitality. 

5 Government and life in Saxon England. 

a Government: moots; courts; trial by ordeal; the Witan 
and its power ; selection and power of the king. 

b Life among the Saxons of the 10th century: the village and 
its folkland; homes and furnishings; food; clothing; agri- 
culture; trade; manufactures. 

Topics for advanced pupils : 

A Origin and government of the shires. 

B The Saxon hundred and township. 

C Charlemagne, his empire, government and attention to education. 
D Alfred's government of England. 



214 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

E The settlement of the Normans in France. 

F The vikings, their education and manner of life as described in Du- 

Chaillu's Viking Age. 
G Canute's letter to his people. 
H A ground plan of a monastery. 
/ Conversion of Northumbria. 
J The northern monasteries. 
K Edmund Ironside. 

Ill Norman England. 1066-1154. 

1 Establishment of Norman rule. 

a Completion of the conquest : castle building ; grants of land ; 

crushing of Northumbria; defeat of Hereward; victories 

over Malcolm; the Domesday book and the Salisbury Oath. 
b Characteristics of William the Conqueror. 
c Tyranny of William Rufus. 
d Government of Henry 1 : the Saxon marriage ; Charter of 

Liberties; king's courts; Robert's claim to the throne; 

Tinchebrai; Normandy an English duchy. 

2 The Church and the crusades. 

a Double control by Church and state: organization of the 
Church ; Church courts and what they did ; relations of Wil- 
liam 1 and Gregory 7 ; strife of investitures ; the Church and 
learning; churchmen as statesmen. 

b The crusades : causes ; interest of the Church in the crusades ; 
Robert of Normandy and the first crusade. 

3 Life of the feudal period. 

a Feudal relations: duties of lord, vassal and serf. 

b The feudal estate : the castle ; the manor ; division of lands. 

c Reasons for the development of feudalism. 

d Differences between English and continental feudalism. 

e Warfare: weapons; manner of fighting; treatment of 
: _- prisoners; knighthood and chivalry. 

/ Antagonism of Norman and Saxon: reasons and effects. 

g Education; manufactures; trade; travel; amusements. 

h Language and literature: language of court, Church and 
field ; language of different sections ; Geoffry of Monmouth 
and the legends of King Arthur; the troubadours and their 
songs; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Domesday book. 
B Land holdings under the Normans, ; .- _ * 



ENGLISH HISTORY 215 

C Ground plan of a feudal castle. 

D Battle of Senlac. 

E Here ward the Wake. 

F Comparison of Norman and Saxon characteristics. 

G Lanfranc. 

IV England under the Plantagenets. 1 154-1485. 

1 England and France. 

a Henry 2 and his dominions. 

Map of the territory ruled by Henry 2. 
b Weakness of England under John and Henry 3 : loss of 
Normandy; gradual loss of other possessions. 

Map showing England's possessions in France at the outbreak 
of the Hundred Years War. 
c Beginning of the Hundred Years War: claim of Edward 3 
to the French throne; Crecy; the Black PrinCe; Poitiers; 
Treaty of Bretigny; truce of 1375. 

Map locating principal battles, sieges and strongholds of 
the Hundred Years War. 
d Renewal of war with France: Henry 5 revives claim to the 
French crown: Agincourt; progress of the war; Bedford; 
. work of Joan of Arc ; close of the war. 

Map showing conditions in France when Joan of Arc be- 
gan her work. 

2 Ireland, Wales and Scotland. 

[ a Ireland: early history; Henry 2 in Ireland; the English 
Pale; life on the island. 

b Wales: early relations with England; the Welsh marches; 
conquest by Edward 1 ; revolts and reconquest. 

c Scotland: border warfare; overlordships ; award of Nor- 
ham; alliance of Scotland and France; Dunbar and the 
fall of Balliol; rising of Wallace; union of England and 
Scotland; Bruce; Bannockburn; recognition of Scottish 
independence in 1328. 

3 Constitutional development. 

a Organized government: political condition of England at 
the accession of Henry 2 ; character of Henry 2 ; royal 
power increased by conquest of the barons ; scutage ; judicial 
reforms; the council; Henry 2 and the Church; sale of 
charters by Richard 1 ; plans of Henry 2 carried forward by 
Richard's justiciars. 



2l6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Magna Charta: King John and his quarrel with the barons; 
part taken by Stephen Langton; granting the charter; 
principal provisions and importance of the charter in English 
history. 

c The first Parliament: Henry 3 and the Barons' War; char- 
acteristics of the king ; grievances of the people ; Provisions 
of Oxford ; divisions among the barons and results ; rule of 
Simon de Montfort; Parliament of 1265; Evesham and its 
results. 

d The Model Parliament and taxation: Edward 1, character, 
aims and policy ; composition and importance of the Model 
Parliament ; confirmation of the charters. 

e Parliament deposes Edward 2. 

f House of Lords and House of Commons: character of Ed- 
ward 3 ; division of Parliament into two houses ; Parliament 
and taxation ; the Good Parliament. 

g Parliament and Richard 2 : rule and deposition of Richard 2 ; 
Parliament elects Henry 4; strength of Parliament under 
Henry 4. 

h Decline of parliamentary power: the regency and weak rule 
of Henry 6 ; divisions among the nobles ; rivalry of Lancas- 
ter and York. 

4 Wars of the Roses. 

a Causes for civil strife : condition of the country ; the barons; 
character of Henry 6 ; rivalry of Lancaster and York. 

b Course of the war: division of the country; battles of St 
Albans, Wakefield and Towton; triumph and rule of Ed- 
ward 4; quarrel between Edward 4 and Warwick; Tewks- 
bury and Barnet; death of Edward 4 and usurpation of 
Richard 3; Bosworth Field and accession of the Tudors; 
results of the wars. 

Map showing divisions of the country and battles of the Wars of 
the Roses. 

5 The Church. 

a Church and state: strife between Henry 2 and Thomas a 
Becket; quarrel between John and the pope; establishment 
of papal power; increase of the wealth of the Church; the 
statutes of mortmain, provisors and premunire, why they 
were passed and what they did. 

b The friars and their work. 

c Lollards: causes of the Lollard movement; Wyclif • persecu- 
tion of the Lollards. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 21 7 

6 Commerce and manufactures. 

a Commerce: merchant gilds, merchants of the staple; fairs; 

the Hanseatic League; merchant adventurers. 
b Manufactures: early manufactures; coming of the Flemish 

weavers; development of woolen manufactures; craft gilds. 

7 Life in Plantagenet England. 

a General progress: union of Saxon and Norman; growth of 
towns; decrease of villeinage; increasing wealth and im- 
portance of the artisan class. 

I The Peasants' Rising: the Black Death and its effect on in- 
dustry; statute of laborers; growth of democratic senti- 
ment; Wat Tyler's rebellion and its overthrow; permanent 
results. 

c Warfare: weapons and armor; religious military orders, 
their organization, power and decadence ; decline of chivalry ; 
use of gunpowder. 

d Intellectual progress : development of the English language ; 
Chaucer ; Wyclif ; Langland ; cathedral building ; rise of the 
universities ; introduction of printing. 

e Travel and amusements ; home life of noble and peasant. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 

A The principles of Magna Charta that have become embodied in 
1 f English and American government. 

B The interdict and the excommunication. 

C The contest between Gregory 7 and Henry 4 of Germany. 

D A summary of the relations between the Papacy and English sov- 
ereigns covering the reigns of William 1, Henry 2, John and Ed- 
ward 1. 

E A comparison of the Peasants Rising and the Jacquerie. 

F Life in England as portrayed by Chaucer. 

G Feudal England as seen in Ivanhoe. 

H The Steelyard. 

/ The restrictions and dangers of commerce in the Plantagenet period. 

J Trade routes in the Middle Ages. 

K A medieval fair. 

L The introduction of the printing press into England. 

M The early use of gunpowder in war. 

N The character of Richard 3 as seen in Shakspere's Richard 3. 

Tudor England. 1485-1603. 

1 The establishment of centralized monarchy. 
a Henry 7: condition of the country, Church, nobles and 
middle classes after the Wars of the Roses; law against 
maintenance and livery; the Court of the Star Chamber; 
benevolences; artillery; avoidance of foreign wars. 



2l8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Henry 8 : the personal government of Henry 8 as seen in his 
treatment of -his wives ( his ministers and Parliament; di- 
vorce of Katherine ; Act of Supremacy ; confiscation of the 
monasteries ; creation of a "new nobility." 

c The nation's acceptance of despotism: growing power of the 
middle classes; control of Parliament by the Crown; gen- 
eral characteristics and policy of the Tudors. 

2 Extension of national power abroad. 

a The Tudor peace policy : marriage alliances and diplomacy of 
Henry 7 ; the foreign policy of Wolsey ; the caution of Eliza- 
beth. 

b The war with Spain: causes of the war; the Armada and its 
effect on national spirit ; defeat of the Armada ; Elizabethan 
seamen. 

c England's position at the close of the Tudor period. 

Map showing Europe and Spanish Empire, 15 30. 

3 The Church of England and the rise of Puritanism. 

a Condition of the church at the opening of the period : wealth ; 
judicial courts ; political power and influence. 

b Rise of Protestantism: doctrines of Wyclif; Luther's revolt; 
attitude of Henry 8 toward Luther's teachings. 

c The break with Rome : divorce of Katherine ; dissolution of 

i the monasteries ; translation of the Bible ; the Ten Articles ; 

Act of Supremacy ; the Pilgrimage of Grace ; the Six Articles ; 

treatment accorded to heretics ; the church as left by Henry 8. 

d The Protestant revolution under Edward 6 and his ministers : 
measures of the government ; attitude of the nation. 

e Catholic reaction: Mary's aims; the attitude of Parliament 
and the nation toward Mary; the Spanish marriage; re- 
union with Rome ; persecutions; results of Mary's policy. 

f The moderation of Elizabeth: repeal of heresy laws; the 
Thirty -nine Articles ; growth of Puritan ideas ; effects of the 
Armada and the wars in the Netherlands on religious senti- 
ment. 

g The Church in Ireland and Scotland. 

4 Trade and colonies. 

a Trade: decay of gilds and trade organizations; rise of the 
middle class; debasement and restoration of coinage; com- 
ing of artisans from the continent; gain of ' Flemish trade; 
laws protecting manufactures and regulating trade; estab- 
lishment of navy. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 219 

b Colonial enterprise: explorations of the Cabots, Drake and 
Raleigh ; colonizing attempts of Gilbert and Raleigh ; 
establishment of trading companies. 
5 Life in Tudor England. 

a Social and economic changes: modes of living; the house, 
city and country ; decay of old towns ; rise of new centers of 
population ; wheat fields versus sheep pastures ; increase of 
pauperism and its causes; laws for relief of the poor; intro- 
duction of firearms. 

b Intellectual awakening: growth of the spirit of adventure 
and enterprise; the New Learning, its nature; Erasmus, 
More, Colet; establishment of new schools and colleges; the 
drama; the theater; Shakspere and Bacon. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The Utopia of Sir Thomas More and America. 
B The revolt of the Netherlands. 
C Why heretics were put to death. 
D Spanish power in the 16th century. 
E Political reasons for the coquetry of Elizabeth. 
F Achievements of Elizabethan seamen. 
G The execution of Mary Queen of Scots 
H The gild and the modern trade-union'. 
/ The earliest attempts of the English to colonize America. 
J The poor laws of Elizabeth. 
K A day at Elizabeth's court. 

VI The Puritan revolution and Royalist reaction 1603-88. 

1 Division between kings and Parliament. 

a Beginning of strife: change in national spirit about 1600; 
personality of James 1; Hampton Court Conference; issues 
in the first Parliament; Gunpowder plot; divine right of 
kings; rule of favorites; Bacon and the revival of impeach- 
ments. 

b Increasing differences between Parliament and the Crown: 
characteristics of Charles 2 ; the Petition of Right ; tonnage 
and poundage; Laud's policy and religious strife; the disso- 
lution of 1629 and the emigration of Puritans; monopolies; 
ship money and Hampden's resistance; Wentworth's meas- 
ures ; Laud and the outbreak in Scotland ; the Short Parlia- 
ment. 

c The Long Parliament : meeting of the Long Parliament ; 
impeachment and execution of Strafford ; measures limiting 
the power of the king; division of Parliament on religious 
questions; intriguing of Charles for support; the Grand 



220 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Remonstrance; attempt to seize the five members; civil 
war. 

2 Civil war and the commonwealth. 

a The first civil war: rival parties, their leaders and support; 
outbreak of the war ; Cromwell and the Ironsides ; Scottish 
alliance; Solemn League and Covenant ; Marston Moor; di- 
visions in the parliamentary party; the Self-denying Ordi- 
nance ; the New Model ; Naseby ; negotiations of the king. 

b The second civil war: alliance of the king with the Scots; 
the battle of Preston ; Pride's Purge ; trial and execution of 
the king. 

c The Commonwealth: the Rump Parliament, conquest of 
Scotland and Ireland; Cromwell as Lord Protector; con- 
stitutional experiment; fall of the commonwealth. 

Map showing how England was divided between Puritan and 
Cavalier and the battle-fields of the Puritan Revolution. 

3 Restoration and revolution. 

a Political conditions: character and policy of the king; the 
nation and the doctrine of nonresistance ; Parliament and 
taxation ; the royal dispensing power. 

b Religious settlement: Act of Uniformity; penal legislation 
against dissent; condition of the Catholics and aims of the 
king. 

c Charles 2 and Louis 14: aims of the French king; war be- 
tween England and Holland; the secret treaty of Dover; 
the Declaration of Indulgence; the Test Act; Titus Oates; 
,,, the Exclusion Bill; Whigs and Tories. 

d Overthrow of the Stuarts : national fear of a Catholic despot- 
ism ; assertion of dispensing power by the king ; Catholics in 
office; a standing army; Declaration of Indulgence; pe- 
tition and trial of the seven bishops. 

e William of Orange: position and character of William; the 
summons to England; flight of James 2 ; Parliament and the 
succession. 

/ Results of the Revolution : Bill of Rights ; Act of Toleration ; 
Act of Settlement. 

4 England and the continent. 

a James 1 : foreign policy of James 1 ; the Thirty Years War. 
b Cromwell: Navigation Act; war with Holland; war with 

Spain; England's influence in Europe during Cromwell's 

protectorate. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 221 

c The restored Stuarts: wars between England and Holland; 
secret alliance of £harles 2 and Louis 14 ; the designs of Louis 
14. 

Ireland. 

Ireland reconquered: condition of Ireland in 1600; Went- 
worth; rebellion of 1641 ; conquest by Cromwell; the Crom- 
wellian settlement. 

Commerce and colonies. 

a Colonies in America : colonies founded in America during the 
Stuart period; influence on the American colonies of the 
civil and religious dissensions of the mother country; the 
navigation laws; war with Spain, Jamaica; war with Hol- 
land, the New Netherlands. 

b Commerce: trading posts in India; some of the principal 
articles of commerce in the 17th century. 

Religious history. 

a An age of religious intolerance: causes of the intolerance; 
religious parties of the period ; laws to establish conformity ; 
the King James version ; effects of the Gunpowder Plot on 
the position of the Catholics in England ; Laud and his policy ; 
attitude of Scotland toward the use of the prayer book ; the 
church question in Parliament; religious settlement of the 
Restoration; royal tolerance; national intolerance; re- 
ligious conditions at the close of the period. 

Life and literature. 

a Life: manner of life, dress and amusements of Cavalier and 

Roundhead. 
b Literature: establishment of the Royal Society of London 
and its significance ; King James version and its influence on 
the English language; the first newspapers; Milton; Bun- 
yan; Newton; Harvey. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A Gunpowder plot. 
B Plantation of Ulster. 
C Spanish journey. 
D Impeachment of Strafford. 
E Attack on the five members. 
F Trial of King Charles 2. 
G Fall of the Rump Parliament. 
H Flight of Charles Stuart from Worcester. 
I Cromwell's work. 
J The plague of 1665. 
K The great fire of 1666. 
L Jeffreys on the Western Circuit. 
M Trial of the seven bishops. 



222 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

VII Constitutional monarchy 1688-1820. 

1 Establishment and development of constitutional monarchy. 

a Constitutional gains: Mutiny Act; Toleration Act; Bill of 
Rights ; Act of Settlement. 

b Growth of political parties: Whigs and Tories; the Sep- 
tennial Bill. 

c The Cabinet : party government through the Cabinet ; Horace 
Walpole ; methods of controlling Parliament ; personality and 
influence of the Hanoverian kings. 

2 Scotland and Ireland. 

a The Revolution in Scotland: Claverhouse; the union of 
1707; the Jacobites; the risings of 1715 and 1745. 

b Ireland : course of King James 2 ; siege of Londonderry ; 
battle of Boyne, the treaty of Limerick and now it was 
disregarded; condition of Ireland through the 18th century; 
home rule 1782-1800; the rebellion of 1798; the United 
Kingdom 1801. 

3 Conflicts with France on three continents. 

a Rivalry of William 3 and Louis 14: French support of the 
Stuarts ; league against Louis ; La Hogue ; the war in Amer- 
ica ; the Treaty of Ryswick. 

b The War of the Spanish Succession: the causes; the allies; 
Marlborough and his companions ; Gibraltar, Acadia and 
Hudson bay; attitude of English parties toward the war; 
treaty of Utrecht. 

c The War of the Austrian Succession : causes ; allies ; Detingen, 
Fontenoy, Louisburg; Treaty of Aix la Chapelle. 

J War continued in the colonies: strife for the Ohio valley; 
Braddock's defeat; rivalry with the French in India; the 
work of DuPleix and Clive. . 

e Seven Years War: causes; allies; Pitt's administration; 
British successes ; Wolfe ; Treaty of Paris. 
The Revolution : aid from France for the American colonies ; 
the allies against England ; Yorktown ; treaties of peace. 

g The French Revolution: conditions in France 1789; the 
English feeling at first concerning the French Revolution; 
the Reign of Terror; war on the revolutionists; rise of Na- 
poleon ; battle of the Nile ; the Treaty of Amiens. 

h The war with Napoleon: coalitions against Napoleon; the 
work of Nelson; Austerlitz and Jena; Wellesley and the 
Peninsular War; commercial warfare leading to war with 
the United States; Napoleon in Russia; Elba; Waterloo; 
St Helena. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 223 

Colonies. 

a America: colonial policy of European nations; English re- 
strictions on colonial trade ; aims of George 3 ; Whigs and 
Tories in England and America; outbreak of the American 
Revolution ; war in New England ; the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence; war in the Middle States; Saratoga and the 
French alliance ; war in the South ; Yorktown and the inde- 
pendence of American colonies; loss of other colonies; 
change in the treatment of colonies. 

b India: the East India Co. 1750; French rivalry; Clive and 
Dupleix; conquest of Bengal; methods of governing India; 
Warren Hastings ; the Mahratta War. 

c Canada: conquest; loyalty during the American Revolu- 
tion; the Hudson's Bay Co.; constitution granted 1791. 

d Australia and New Zealand : discovery ; convict settlements ; 
wool growing. 

e Minor colonies: the West India colonies; sugar raising; 
slavery; Cape Colony, acquired, surrendered, regained; 
Gibraltar, St Helena. 

Manufactures and commerce : the industrial revolution. 

a Changes in manufacturing : the coming of the French Hugue- 
nots ; coal mines and iron works ; inventions and the use of 
•machinery ; the factory system ; new centers of population ; 
effects on the working classes. 

b Agriculture: improvements in tillage and breeding; de- 
crease of small landholders. 

c Canals. 

Reform movements. 

a Religious reforms : religious conditions in the first part of the 
1 8th century; the Wesleys and Whitfield. 

b Philanthropic reforms: Howard and the prisons; Wilber- 
force and the slave trade ; changes in penal laws ; - care of the 
poor. 

c Political reforms: Pitt's influence in purifying politics; 
Burke and economic reforms ; freedom of the press. 

National life and literature. 

a Life of the people : dress and social customs; roads; means 
and methods of travel. 

b Banking and finance: Bank of England; national debt; 
South Sea Bubble. 

c Education: Sunday schools and day schools. 

d Writers: Pope, Swift, Addison, DeFoe, Adam Smith. 



224 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A The siege of Londonderry. 
B The massacre of Glencoe. 
C Blenheim. 

D The union of Scotland and England. 
E The coffee house. 
F The battle of Plassey. 
G Pitt the war minister. 
H Pitt and the American colonies. 

I A comparison of political conditions in England and America in 1765. 
J Nelson at Trafalgar. 
K Watt and Stephenson. 

VIII The British Empire 182 0-1905. 

1 Parliamentary reform. 

a The "rotten boroughs": reforms demanded after the Ameri- 
can Revolution ; effects of the French Revolution on public 
sentiment; the contest of 1832; results. 

b The Chartists : Chartist demands and their treatment ; exten- 
sion of suffrage in 1867 and 1884. 

2 Government in England at the present time. 

a The Constitution : its nature ; how it may be changed. 

b The voters. 

c Parliament: the peerage: the House of Lords and its com- 
position; the House of Commons, how chosen and how 
dissolved. 

d Executive powers: the place of the king in the government; 
the Cabinet, how chosen; powers and duties of the Cabinet. 

e The judiciary. 

3 Taxation and trade. 

a The Corn Laws: conflicting views of Peel and Cobden; 

repeal of the Corn Law 
b The Navigation Law : repeal of the Navigation Law ; English 

imports and exports; effect of the free trade policy on the 

development of English trade. 
c Present methods of taxation. 

4 Industrial progress. 

a Public improvements: the development of the locomotive; 

railroad building; McAdam and Telford; the telegraph; 

cheap postage; steamship lines. 
b Trade-unions. 
c Present manufacturing centers. 

Map showing manufactuting and commercial cities vj tfte 
BritishJsles. 



ENGLISH HISTORY 225 

Colonies. 

a Canada: The Hudson's Bay Co.; the rebellion of 1837; the 
Dominion; the Constitution of 1867; development of the 
country. 

b India: enlargement of British territory; the Sepoy Mutiny; 
proclamation of the empire 1876; Burma; the present gov- 
ernment and condition of India. 

c Australasia : discovery of gold ; development of the country ; 
confederation of 1901. 

d South Africa: rivalry of Dutch and English settlers; in- 
dustries and development of southern Africa; the South 
Africa Company and its work; the Boer Wars; present 
conditions. 

e Possessions and minor colonies: the Suez canal, how ac- 
quired; the English in Egypt; Central Africa and South 
Africa; strongholds and coaling stations. 

; £ Relations of the colonies to the home government : methods 
of British rule ; growth of the imperial idea. 
Map showing British empire with dates of acquisition of its 
dependencies. 

Foreign affairs. 

a Rivalries and alliances with other countries: the Crimean 
War, causes, allies, results; English attitude toward the 
Civil War in the United States ; the Alabama Claims and the 
principle of arbitration; the Berlin Congress; the English 
occupation of Egypt. 

b England's position among the nations of today. 

Ireland. 

a The famine of 1845-49: causes and results; emigration. 

b Land tenure: the Irish Land Acts ; the Land League. 

c Agitation for Home Rule: the Fenians; Parnell and Glad- 
stone. 

Literature. 

Leading English authors of the 1 9th century : poets ; novelists ; 
essayists and critics; historians; scientific writers. 

Social conditions. 

a Agriculture: land tenure in England, Scotland and Ireland; 
decline of agricultural prosperity ; reasons for the decline of 
agriculture. 

b Labor: condition of laborers in factories before 1830; 
Shaftesbury and the reform of factory laws; present con- 
dition of labor. 



226 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c Philanthropic reforms: criminal laws; prison management; 

relief of the poor ; tenement house reforms ; social effects of 

the writings of Dickens, Reade, Kingsley and Besant. 
d Growth of cities: causes for the rapid growth of cities; 

municipal ownership of street railways, gas companies, 

waterworks and other public utilities. 
e Education: the Education Acts and their effects; English 

schools and universities. 

Topics for advanced pupils: 
A How the Reform Bill of 1832 was passed. 
B The oppression of children in factories. 
C Charge of the Light Brigade. 
D Imprisonment for debt. 
E Imperial federation. 
F Growth of religious toleration in England as seen in the legislation 

toward Catholics and Jews. 
G The life and influence of Victoria. 
H The power of Edward 7 compared with that of some one of his 

predecessors. 

THE NEW AMERICAN HISTORY 

The recent substitution of America for " United States" in desig- 
nating the location of the ambassadorial and consular offices of 
this country is an external evidence of a fundamental change that 
has come into our conceptions of our own history. The scientific 
investigations of distinguished foreign scholars like DeTocqueville, 
Von Hoist and Bryce have been followed by the creation of a new 
school of American historians whose work has been to show that 
the American Constitution was not "struck off at a given time by 
the brain and purpose of man," but that the history of America, 
like that of every other country, has been an outgrowth from pre- 
vious conditions — that America has never occupied an isolated 
position, but that it has been influenced throughout its develop- 
ment by other nations and that it has in its turn influenced them ; 
that we can not understand present conditions in our own country 
without studying how these conditions have come to be; that 
patriotism no longer means adhesion to the statement, "My 
country, right or wrong, My country," but a united effort on the 
part of all its citizens to make the country right. 

This new point of view of the historian has been reflected in the 
textbook written for the schools. This no longer presents in flam- 
boyant style the traditional spectacular events that collectively 
have been called "the history of the United States," but it treats 



AMERICAN HISTORY 227 

the history of the country as a natural development. It is no 
longer a heterogeneous collection of miscellaneous facts chrono- 
logically arranged — but it is an orderly presentation of related 
events. It is not based on rumor, traditions, theories and pre- 
viously conceived ideas, but on careful investigation of the authori- 
ties used. It does not assume that " advanced work in history con- 
sists in reading larger books and more of them," but it adapts both 
matter and method to the capacities of those who are to use it. 
The textbook for the elementary and grammar grades presents the 
picturesque and imaginative side of history in order that the child 
may have a vivid picture of the conspicuous events of the past. 
The textbook for the secondary school places emphasis on under- 
lying causes and on the development of great movements in order 
that the boy may appreciate the unity of history. 

The new teacher of American history is both a cause and a result 
of the new. textbook. He appreciates the importance of treating 
American history as a continuous development from European his- 
tory — not as a disconnected series of special creations. He under- 
stands that all society is organic in character and that therefore 
history can not be taught as a description of inorganic matter. He 
knows that the essential in teaching the American Constitution is 
to teach its underlying principles as they were developed from 
political conditions, not to teach isolated, unrelated facts. He 
does not "put the cart before the horse," to use the homely phrase, 
and attempt to teach civics as a disconnected subject made up of 
abstractions and constantly fluctuating facts, but he teaches it as 
an outgrowth of the political conditions of the country. He 
realizes that it is far more important to know why every state in 
the Union has its own Constitution and how the functions of the 
state government resemble or differ from those of the federal 
government than it is to learn by heart the names of the state 
officers and the amount of salary attached to each office. He com- 
prehends that in material as well as in spiritual affairs "the things 
that are seen are temporal, but the things that are unseen are 
eternal," and he teaches not the boundaries of various assembly 
and senatorial districts, but what were the historical conditions 
that gave rise to a representative legislative body and why that 
body was composed of two houses. He uses the newspaper, not as 
a purveyor of transient gossip, but as an intelligent aid in the inter- 
pretation of the past by the present. He welcomes pictures in his 
work, not that of Sir Francis Drake discovering the Pacific, but that 
of the New England town with its meeting house and its school- 



228 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

house ; not the picture of the battle scene that might be labeled any 
one of a hundred conflicts, but the plan of a Southern plantation 
showing the relative location of its numerous buildings; not the 
photograph of the reigning political boss, but the seal of the federal 
government and what it signifies. He utilizes outline maps, not to 
locate the counties in a state, but to show the territories explored 
by different nationalities and the routes taken by the pioneers in 
their westward march. He uses a hundred tools in his work where 
his unskilled predecessor used but one, and the resulting product 
is not a crude caricature of the past but a faithful, scientific and ar- 
tistic delineation of the development of America from Europe. 

The teacher of today who teaches American history appreciates 
Professor Maitland's apostrophe of the map of England — "that 
most wonderful of all palimpsests !" He sees in the map of America 
another most wonderful palimpsest whereon have been written the 
hopes and aspirations and discouragements, the failures and suc- 
cesses of Spaniard and Frenchman, Swede and Hollander and Eng- 
lishman, of monk and friar, of fur trader and lumberman, of fron- 
tiersman and immigrant, of political refugee and religious enthusiast. 
How indeed, he may say, can he know the real America unless he 
knows it in its European home ? How can he train those who may 
be called on to legislate for the Italians in their American home 
unless they have been taught the failures and successes of that 
great uprising for independence and unity that culminated in the 
establishment of the kingdom of Italy — how understand the Ger- 
man of the Northwest without a knowledge of the idealism in politics 
art, literature, and music that found expression in the revolutionary 
uprising of '48 and sent the flower of German youth to our shores — 
how deal in wisdom and patience with the Hungarians coming to us 
unless we realize the passionate aspirations for political liberty of 
the Hungarians in Europe — how assimilate the nearly one million 
foreigners who come annually to our shores unless we know why 
they left their native land as well as why they have come to us ? 

If then the new American history strikes its roots deep down into 
European soil it is because the hight and the strength of the tree 
demands it and because its very life depends on it. The committee 
presents the outline of American history in the hope that it may be 
of service to the teacher of today. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



229 



a, 



I 

Discovery 

and exploration 

before 1607. 

II 
Southern 
colonies, 
1607-1760. 



J III 

10 New England, 
1620-1760. 



IV 
Middle colonies, 
1609-1760. 



V 
Colonies 
in the 

1 8th century, 
to 1760. 

VI 
Union and 
independence, 
1760-83. 

VII 
Critical period, 
1783-89. 

VIII 
Federalist 
supremacy, 
o I 1789-1801. 
IX 
1 Jeffersonian 
5 Republicans, 
i 1801-17. 



X 

Reorganization , 
1817-29. 



XI 
j National 
6 : democracy, 
1 1829-44. 



General survey of the field 



I 



r 



1 Land and resources. 

2 Discovery of America. 

3 Exploration and early settlement before 

Jamestown, 149 2- 160 7. 

4 Virginia, 1607-1760, a typical Southern 

colony. 

5 Maryland, a typical proprietary colony. 

6 Carolinas and Georgia, the Southern fron- 

tier colonies. 

7 Beginnings of colonization of New Eng- 

land. 

8 Early Massachusetts, a typical New Eng- 

land colony, 1629-50. 

9 New England, 1636-1760, typical devel- 

opment of American institutions. 

10 Dutch and English in New York. 

n Pennsylvania, "A Quaker Experiment in 
Government"; New Jersey and Dela- 
ware. 

12 Political and economic development, 

1700-50. 

13 Struggle between France and England for 

North America, 1689-1763. 

14 The colonies in 1760; political, social and 

economic conditions ; comparisons. 

15 Causes of the Revolution, 1760-74. 

16 The Revolution, 1775-83. 



{ 17 Confederation and Constitution. 

t 






18 Organization of the government. 

19 Foreign relations, 1 793-1 800. 

20 Fall of the Federalists. 

21 Domestic policy of the Republicans. 

22 Expansion. 

23 Struggle for neutral rights. 

24 Economic reorganization. 

25 Westward migration and internal im- 

provements. 

26 Slavery and the Missouri Compromise. 

27 Monroe Doctrine and Panama Congress. 

28 Political reorganization and triumph of 

Jackson. 

29 Nullification in South Carolina. 

30 Overthrow of the United States Bank; 

financial questions. 

31 Antislavery agitation, 1831-38. 



23O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 




XII f 32 Annexation of Texas, and the Mexican 
Slavery in the ! War. 

territories, ) 33 Struggle over slavery in the territories 

1844-60. [ 

XIII f 1 
Secession and the ! 34 Secession of the Southern States. ! 
Civil War, ] 35 The Civil War, 1861-65. i 
1860-65. I J 

f 36 Reconstruction, the New South, and the 

-v-j-y race problem. 

■p-.-. __„ f I 37 Political problems: civil service, foreign 

it ro Diciiis 01 1 j. * * ■ 1 j_ 

■{ relations, municipal government. 

oft* ' I 38 Economic problems: currency, tariff, 

1 5-1904. trusts, labor, transportation. 

I. 39 Summary and review of American history. 

Outline 
I Discovery and explorations before 1607. 

1 The land and its resources. 
a Physical features. 

b Effect of this environment. 

c Availability of land of United States for building a nation. 

Map work: 

Indicate on outline map the most important physical features 
of America. 

2 Discovery of America. 

How and why the discovery came in 1492. Important results. 

a Why the Norse discoveries were in no sense a true discovery 
of America. 

b European conditions at close of 15th century leading to dis- 
covery. 

c Columbus: his early career and how it trained him for dis- 
covery ; ideas ; attempts. 

d The discovery. 

e Columbus's character and place in history. 

f Conclusion: the importance of the discovery ; its effect on com- 
merce, colonies, wars, diplomacy, industrial life. 

Additional topic: 
The naming of America. 

Map work: 

On an outline map, trace Columbus's first voyage, indicating 
dates when points were reached. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 23 1 

3 Explorations and early settlements, before Jamestown, 

1492-1607. 
a Spanish: objects; regions; reasons for failure. 
b French: objects; regions; reasons for failure. 
c English: objects; regions; reasons for failure. 

Additional topics: 
A Character of Spanish rule. 

B The contest between the Huguenot and Spanish colonies in Florida. 
C Spanish motives and policy. 

D The Elizabethan seamen; their character and work. 
E The Spanish Armada, and Spain's loss of sea power. Why is this 
event important in American history? 

Map work: 

a The regions discovered or explored by each nation to be 
pointed out on map. 

b On outline map of world, represent voyages of Columbus, 
Cabots, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, Verrazano, Drake, with 
dates, and in colors (Spanish, yellow; English, red; 
French, blue). 

c On outline map of United States, show in colors (as above) 
the explorations or settlements of Spanish (De Leon, 
Cortes, Pizarro, De Vaca, Coronado, De Soto, and St 
Augustine) ; French (Cartier, Huguenot colonies, Acadia) ; 
English (Raleigh colonies). 

d Map of world showing Spanish possessions after seizure of 
Portugal (1580). 

II Southern colonies, 1607- 1760. 

4 Virginia, a typical southern colony. 

a New motives and methods of colonization in 17th century. 

b Reasons for early failures in Virginia, 1607-19. 

c Reasons for greater success, 1619-24, under leadership of 
Sandys and Southampton, and the party opposed to abso- 
lutism. 

d Labor question: early troubles; indented white servants 
and negro slaves. 

e Development of representative government and spirit of 
independence, after annulling of charter, 1624. (1) Self- 
government during Puritan supremacy in England. (2) 
Bacon's Rebellion, causes, changes proposed, results. 
(3) Quarrels between assemblies and governors; the sub- 
jects, the significance. 

f Pictures of early Virginia. 

g Government of Virginia, a typical royal colony. 



232 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Map work: 

a Physical features. 

b Counties, with dates, illustrating westward movement. 

Additional topics: 

A John Smith as adventurer, governor and historian. 

B Education, including William and Mary College. Governor Ber- 
keley's ideas. 

C Political and economic effects of the cultivation of tobacco. 

D "The coming of the Cavaliers." 

E "Westward growth of Old Virginia," and settlement of the Shenan- 
doah valley. 

F Virginia life in 18th century. 

5 Maryland. 

a Government of Maryland, a typical proprietary colony. 

b Development of representative government in Maryland. 

c Religious toleration in Maryland. (1) Provision of charter 
and desire of Lord Baltimore. (2) The Toleration Act of 
1649. (3) What is said about religion and religious freedom 
in the Constitution of the United States, and in the Consti- 
tution of your own state. Compare with the provisions of 
the "Toleration Act" of 1649. 

d "Some characteristics of Maryland." 

6 Carolinas and Georgia, the southern frontier colonies. 
a Independent spirit in the Carolinas. 

b Frontier Life of North Carolina. 

c Life in South Carolina. 

d Georgia: its twofold object; its services; its characteristics. 

Additional topic: 
Puritans in the Southern colonies. 

Ill New England (162 0-1760). 

7 Beginnings of colonization of New England. Character and 

aims of Puritans, Pilgrims and Plymouth colony. 
a Origin and aims of English Puritans (before 1608); special 
ideas of the Separatists ; treatment of the Puritans by Eliza- 
beth and James 1 ; how the Separatists around Scrooby be- 
came Pilgrims; why the Pilgrims left Holland; Mayflower 
Compact; landing and settling at Plymouth; early govern- 
ment and life. 

8 Early Massachusetts. 

A typical New England colony, 1624-50. Objects (religious, 
political, economic). Character of government and life. 

a Causes and character of the Puritan exodus to Massachusetts 
in 1630. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 233 

b Founding of Massachusetts: charter, how obtained, pro- 
visions; Cambridge agreement, transfer; settlement of Bos- 
ton and adjoining towns. 

c Rise of representative government in Massachusetts, 1631-50. 

d The threefold danger, 1634-36. 

e Local government in Massachusetts, its origin and form, 
town meeting, and selectmen. 

/ Education, morals and religion in Massachusetts in 17th 
century. 
9 New England, 1636-1760. 

Typical development of American institutions. 

EXPANSION (BY EXPULSION AND EMIGRATION). WRITTEN CONSTITUTIONS 

a Founding of Providence and Rhode Island, 1636-40. 

b Founding of Connecticut. 

c Founding of New Haven: aims of founders, difference be- 
tween their government and that of Connecticut, the blue 
laws. 

d The northern settlements, later, New Hampshire and Maine: 
reasons for settlements; character; relations to Massachu- 
setts. 

FEDERATION 

e The New England Confederation, 1643: articles, administra- 
tion, services. 

RELATION WITH SUBJECT RACES, AND WITH QUAKERS AND WITCHES 

/ New England treatment of the Indian in 17th century: land, 

trade, missionary work, Pequot War. 
g The effect of the Indian as neighbor and enemy on the colonist. 
h Treatment of Quakers by Massachusetts. 
i Witchcraft delusion. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT AND INDEPENDENT SPIRIT 

j Overthrow of the Massachusetts charter. 

k The tyranny of Andros and the Revolution of 1689. 

I Independent attitude of Massachusetts toward English gov- 
ernment, 1630-1760. 

m Provincial New England, 1692-1760: contests with royal 
governors; paper money; commerce; Harvard and Yale; 
the "Great Awakening"; literature. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT— DEMOCRATIC SPIRIT-PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

n Colonial governments of New England. 
Social and economic conditions in New England in 1760 (in- 
cluding education). 



234 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Additional topics: 
A John Winthrop: his character and his statesmanship. 
B The Body of Liberties, 1641, the first New England code of laws, 

compared with Magna Charta. 
C Why was Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts? 

Map work: 

New England in 17th century: indicate rivers, chief towns 
mentioned in reading, boundaries of colonies, location of 
chief Indian tribes (to be marked 1650 or 1700, according 
to map followed). 

IV Middle colonies, 1609- 1760. 

10 New York. 

a Under the Dutch. (1) Political, religious and industrial 
ideas of the Dutch in Holland. The long struggle with Spain. 
(2) Holland and commercial enterprise; voyages of Hudson 
and the founding of trading posts ; the fur trade and friendship 
with the Indians. (3) The West India Co. and the pa- 
troons. (4) Growth of the colony and the demand for self- 
government. (5) The struggle for self-government: contest 
with Governor Kieft, causes and results; renewal of the 
popular demand under Governor Stuyvesant, effects; why 
the people did not oppose capitulation to the English. (6) 
Conditions in New Netherlands in 1664: population and 
classes; leading occupations; churches and religion; schools 
and education; comparison of Dutch and English colonies. 

b Under the English. (1) Meaning of the surrender (1664). 
(2) English neglect of schools. (3) Slow progress toward 
self-government: Governor Nichols and the Dukes Laws 
1665; the first assembly; the Charter of Liberties, 1683 ; de- 
struction of the representative assembly ; the Revolution of 
1688 and Leisler's rule; representative government, reestab- 
lished under William and Mary. (4) The French and Indian 
Wars 1688-1763. (5) Social, educational, religious and 
economic conditions, 1700-60. 

Additional topics: 
A "Of the reasons and causes why and how New Netherland is so 

decayed," 1650. 
B Peter Stuyvesant. 

C Old Dutch customs in New Netherland. 
D The struggles of the Dutch and the English for a representative 

assembly. 
E Reasons for greater success of England than of Holland as a 

colonizing nation. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 235 

F The Iroquois Confederacy. 

G New York in the Intercolonial Wars. 

H Indian trails and modern routes of transportation. 

/ French, German and Scotch settlements in New York. 

J Strategic points in colonial New York. 

K The Zenger trial. 

L The importance of Albany in colonial times. 

11 Pennsylvania, "A Quaker experiment in government." New 

Jersey and Delaware. 

a Colonial New Jersey: occupation by the English; the 
Quaker purchase; Penn's purchase; East and West Jersey, 
1674; New Jersey as a crown colony, 1702; character of 
the people. 

b The principles of the " Friends," or Quakers : political, moral, 
religious. 

c Life and character of William Penn. 

d The founding of Pennsylvania. 

e The Quaker Constitution. 

f The Quaker government, 1682-1756. (1) Religious and civil 
liberty. (2) Relations with the Indians. (3) Quaker atti- 
tude toward war. (4) Extent to which Quakers con- 
trolled the government. (5) Slavery. 

g Social and economic conditions in Pennsylvania, 1760 (or 

176S). 
h Relations with Delaware, "The Territories." 

Additional topics: 
A Quaker organizations and discipline. 
B The virtues and limitations of Quakers and Puritans. 
C A comparison between the Quaker policy toward the Indians in 
Pennsylvania, 1682-1756, and the Puritan policy in New England 
in 1630-76. 
D The Quakers' attitude toward slavery 
E The measure of success of the Quaker experiment. 
F Delaware; settlement, relations with Dutch and with Pennsylvania. 

V The colonies in the 18th century, to 1760. 

12 Political, social and economic development of the colonies, 

1700-50. 

a Political development. (1) Progress in self-government: taxa- 
tion; elections; free speech. (2) Defense of charters. (3) 
Boundary disputes: with France; with Spain; between in- 
dividual colonies. (4) Attempts at union: specially in 1690, 
and Albany Plan, 1754; what is shown by their failure. 

b Economic conditions and development. 



236 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c Social development: population — immigration, expansion, 
increase; religion (specially "Great Awakening"); edu- 
cation; literature; newspapers. 

d General character of the period. 

Additional topics: 

A Outline of the political and economic development in the pupil's 
own state, 1700-50. Use, if available, the topics and subtopics 
above, so as to indicate what progress was made in these lines 
in the state. 

B Same for pupil's own town. 

13 Struggle between France and England for North America, 
1689-1763. 

a French explorations and settlements in the St Lawrence and 
Mississippi valleys, 1604-17 18: Port Royal in Acadia, 1604; 
Champlain at Quebec, 1608; La Salle and the Mississippi, 
1682; settlement of Louisiana, 1699; New Orleans, 1718. 

b Contrast between French and English methods of coloniza- 
tion in North America: political, religious, social, economic. 

c The "Second Hundred Years War between England and 
France," 1689-1815: its world-wide importance; the chief 
events in America to 1748. 

d Strength and weakness of the French and of the English 
in 1754. (1) In Europe: military resources; attitude of each 
of the mother countries toward its colonies. (2) In America: 
geographic conditions; population; military resources; 
political, social, economic conditions. 

e Expulsion of the French, 1754-63, the "French and Indian 
War". (1) Theater of war; lines of invasion. (2) Causes 
and beginnings. {3) Early failures of the English, 1754-57. 
(4) New plans and leaders, and conquest of Canada, 1757-60: 
Pitt ; Wolfe ; Quebec. (5) Terms of peace ; geographic 
and political results of war to England, France, America, 
India. 

Map work: 

a Possessions of France, England and Spain in North 

America in 1756; English and Spanish possessions in 

North America in 1763. 
b Theater of war; showing river valleys, lines of invasions, 

forts, battles. 

Additional topics: 
A Were the English justified in: (1) the attempt to expel the Acadians 
(2) the method used? 



AMERICAN HISTORY 237 

B Character and work of the elder Pitt. 
C Battle of the Plains of Abraham and capture of Quebec. 
D Character and work of the Jesuits in North America in the 17th 
century. 

Review or examination topic: 
"The means, the character, and the spirit of the two combatants [in 
the French and Indian War], and why one succeeded where the other 
was defeated." 
14 Condition of the colonies in 1760 (or 1765), political, social, 
and economic; comparisons between the three sections. 

a Economic conditions. (1) In the Southern colonies (Vir- 
ginia, the typical colony) : occupations; means of communi- 
cation. (2) Contrast between economic conditions in the 
South and in New England. (3) Comparison between eco- 
nomic conditions in New England and the Middle colonies. 

b Social conditions. (1) In Southern colonies: classes; slavery; 
plantation life ; religion, churches and church services; edu- 
cation ; amusements (Virginia, typical colony) . (2) Contrast 
between social conditions in Southern and New England 
colonies. (3) Comparison between social conditions in 
Southern and Middle colonies (Pennsylvania or New York 
as typical colony) . (4) Comparison between social condi- 
tions in New England and Middle colonies (Pennsylvania 
or New York). 

c Political conditions. (1) Contrast between forms of local 
government in New England and Virginia: causes and re- 
sults. (2) The system of local government in New York and 
Pennsylvania: comparison with New England and Virginia. 
(3) The three forms of colonial government. (4) General 
similarities in political conditions in the 13 colonies. 

d General conditions. (1) Inherited institutions and their de- 
velopment. (2) Elements in common among the colonists: 
institutions, character, ideals. (3) Effects of diversity and 
similarity on later development. (4) Means of travel and 
communication between the colonies. (5) Population of the 
colonies in 1760: numbers; character; distribution. 

Additional topics: 
A Colonial amusements. 
B Slavery in the colonies, 1619-1760. 

C Colonial taverns and turnpikes. May be made a topic for investi- 
gation in local history. 
D Religion: including toleration, church and state, and clergymen. 
E Education and literature 
F Foreign trade. 



238 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

VI Union and independence, 1760-83. 

15 Causes of the American Revolution, 1760-83. 

a Underlying causes of the Revolution : fundamental difference 
in ideas and conditions between England and the colonies 
in 1760. (1) In social conditions (including religion). (2) 
In economic conditions. (3) In political ideas and conditions : 
two kinds of "representation"; the English view as to the 
government of the colonies; the view in the colonies — ex- 
amples in the Writs of Assistance and the Parson's Cause. 

b The immediate causes of the Revolution, 1763-74, resulting 
from these fundamental differences. (1) Grenville's three 
new schemes of colonial control. (2) The trade laws and 
attempts at enforcement. (3) The Stamp Act: (a) its 
purpose ; (6) the arguments of its supporters ; (c) the ar- 
guments of its opponents. (4) The Townshend Acts and 
resistance to them, 1767-69: (a) Massachusetts Circular 
Letter, 1768; (6) Pennsylvania Farmer's Letters; (c) Vir- 
ginia Resolves of 1769. (5) Boston Massacre, 1770. (6) 
Committees of Correspondence, local and colonial, 1772 
and 1773. (7) Boston Tea Party, 1773. (8) The five 
repressive acts of 1774, the "Intolerable Acts." (9) Con- 
tinental Congress, 1774: (a) demand for it; (b) declaration 
and resolves ; (c) American Association and Nonimportation 
Agreement. 

c A summary of the causes of the American Revolution : brief 
but in chronologic order, and with definite examples. 

Additional topics: 

A Popular feeling in America 1765-75; as shown in handbills, broad- 
sides, songs and illustrations. 

B Modern English views of the causes of the Revolution. 

C What were some of the chief constitutional principles involved in 
the disputes, 1760-74, with specific illustrations of each? 

D How Samuel Adams stirred up the spirit of revolution. 

16 The Revolution, 1775-83. 

Map work: 

a Sketch map, showing three fields of campaign (New Eng- 
land, Middle States, the South), with dates [see topics, 6, 
c, d] for each of three regions, and for 10 or 12 most import- 
ant battles. 

b Boundaries proposed by French court, 1782. 

c Territory of the United States according to the treaty of 
1783, showing also the territory of Spain and England. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 239 

a Comparison of antagonists : population ; resources ; leaders ; 
theater of war; strategy. 

b The campaign in New England, 1775-76: importance of 
Lexington and Concord, of Bunker Hill, of evacuation of 
Boston. 

c The turning of the tide in the Middle States, 1776-80. 
(1) The work of Washington. (2) Burgoyne's campaign. 
(3) French alliance: political effects; military aid. 

d Campaign in the South, 1778-81. 

e Growth toward independence, 1775-76. (1) The king's rejec- 
tion of "Olive Branch" petition. (2) Formation of new 
state governments. (3) Beginning of a national govern- 
ment, 1775. (4) Hiring of the "foreign mercenaries." (5) 
Thomas Paine's Common Sense. 

f The Declaration of Independence. Read it through carefully 
and state. (1) Its ideas as to the source and the purpose of 
democratic government. (2) Some of the definite acts re- 
ferred to in the list of grievances. 

g The treaty of peace, 1783. 

h Difficulties of the Americans. 

i Services of Washington in the Revolution. 

j Patriotism and lack of patriotism during the Revolution 

k Causes of success: American, English, European factors. 
(1) Importance of the aid of France. (2) "How England 
was hampered and weakened." 

/ The widespread results of the Revolution in America and 
Europe. 

m Justification of the Revolution. 

n Advantages and disadvantages of the Revolution. 

Additional topics: 
A Franklin's services to America in the Revolution. 
B The Loyalists and their treatment. 
C The Conway Cabal. 
D Arnold's treason. 
E Naval warfare; John Paul Jones. 
F The services of foreign officers in the American army. 
G Account of a battle in which a pupil's ancestor took part. 
H John Andre and Nathan Hale. 
I Diplomacy of the Revolution. 

J The Revolution in the minds and hearts of the people. 
K The battle of Oriskany. 
L The Tories in New York. 

M The Formation of the government of the State of New York. 
N The Services of Peter Schuyler. 



24O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

VII The critical period, 1783-89. 

17 Confederation and Constitution. 

PART 1. CONFEDERATION 

a Articles of Confederation: history of formation; leading 
features; defects; merits; attempts to amend. 

b Weakness of the government: dealings with the army; for- 
eign relations. 

c Disorders in the states : boundary disputes ; trade discrimina- 
tions; paper money craze. 

d Social, economic and political conditions and progress, 
1783-89. 

e The Northwest Territory: claims of the states; cessions 
(influence of Maryland) ; organization of the territory ; 
rights guaranteed to people. 

Map work: 

The claims of the states to western lands. 

PART 2, CONSTITUTION 

/ The federal convention: steps leading to convention; the 
great compromises; find in the Constitution the clauses 
which constitute the great compromises. 

g Ratification of the Constitution. 

h Preliminary study of the federal Constitution: (1) Con- 
gress: numbers, terms, qualifications and mode of election 
of members of each branch; mode of making laws (three 
possible ways) ; powers of Congress ; special powers of each 
house (what special or exclusive powers does the Senate 
have as compared with the House) ; find in the Constitu- 
tion all the acts which require more than a simple majority 
vote. (2) The president: qualifications, term, manner of elec- 
tion (comparison of old and present methods) ; powers (note 
relations with Congress, and appointing power). (3) The 
judiciary : kinds of courts ; tenure of judges ; jurisdiction of 
courts (general features only). (4) Division of powers be- 
tween state and national government. 

Additional topics: 
A Describe the two forms of territorial government laid down in the 

Ordinance of 1787. 
B Find four or five rights guaranteed to the people of the Northwest 

Territory, and note their appearance in the Constitution. 
C Compare the Constitution with the Articles of Confederation with 

reference to: (1) representation; (2) methods of raising money: 

(3) voting in Congress; (4) amendments. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 24I 

D Contemporary accounts of the defects of the Articles of Con- 
federation. Show how each defect was remedied by the Constitution . 

E Contemporary arguments against ratification of the Constitution. 

F The contest over ratification in Massachusetts; in New York; 
in Virginia. 

VIII The Federalist supremacy, 1 789-1801. 

18 Organization of the national government. 

a Inauguration ; executive departments ; inferior courts ; first 

10 amendments. 
b Financial system, and formation of the Republican party. 

(1) Tariff. (2) Debts. (3) Excise. (4) National bank. 

(5) Formation of parties. 

Additional topics: 

A "Our republican court": titles, ceremonials, levees. 

B The first slavery debates; import tax; petitions; fugitive slave 
law, 1793. 

C Political writings : newspapers, pamphlets, foreign editors. 

D Find in the Constitution three limitations on the power of Con- 
gress to tax. 

E Resemblances between the Constitution of the United States and 
the Constitution of the State of New York. 

F The services of Alexander Hamilton. 

19 Foreign relations, 1793-1800. 

1 a Outbreak of war between England and France. 

b Relations with France: Genet; X, Y, Z affair; war of 1798; 
treaty of 1800. 

c Relations with England: Jay's treaty; constitutional ques- 
tions involved. 

d Relations with Spain: Mississippi question and the treaty 
of 1795. 

Additional topics: 
A Attacks on Washington. 
B Washington's farewell address. 

C Treaties : how made ? May the House refuse to vote money neces- 
sary to carry out a treaty? Can a treaty alter a law of the United 
States? Can a law supersede a treaty? 

20 Fall of the Federalists, 1798-1801. 

a Alien and Sedition Acts ; Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 
b Party organization and conflicts, and the election of 1800-1. 

IX The Jeffersonian Republicans, 1801-1817. 

21 General principles and domestic policy of Jefferson's adminis- 

tration. 



242 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

a Inaugural address. 

b The civil service under Jefferson. 

c The attack on the judiciary. 

d Financial policy: reduction of debt; retrenchment in army 

' and navy. 

22 Expansion. 

a Louisiana Purchase; territorial and constitutional impor- 
tance. 
b Oregon; Lewis and Clark expedition, 1803-6. 

Map work: 

The United States at the close of Jefferson's first term. 

Additional topics: 

A The Federalists' secession projects. 

B Why did Hamilton accept Burr's challenge? 

C Burr's conspiracy. 

D War with the Barbary~pirates. 

23 Struggle for neutral rights. 

a Aggressions by England and France on neutral trade: Berlin 
and Milan decrees ; Orders in Council ; impressments. 

b Retaliatory measures : nonimportation ; embargo ; noninter- 
course act; Macon's bill no. 2. 

c The War of 181 2: causes, French, English and American; 
comparison of strength; military and naval warfare ; oppo- 
sition to the war (Hartford convention) ; treaty of peace. 

Additional topics: 

A Group all the clauses of the Constitution which relate to war. 
B The speaker of the House of Representatives. 
C New York State in the War of 181 2. 
D Battle of Plattsburg. 

X Reorganization, 1817-29. 

24 Economic reorganization. 

a The tariff: effects of the events of 1808-15 on commerce, 
agriculture and manufacturing; protectionist arguments; 
attitude of the political leaders, Clay, Calhoun, Webster 
and Randolph; tariff acts of 1816, 1824, 1828. 

b Banking: evils of state banks; the second United States 
Bank, 1816. 

25 Westward migration and internal improvements. 

a Westward migration: influence of conditions on the sea- 
board; methods and routes of travel; conditions of western 
life, 1800—30. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 243 

b Internal improvements: need of better communication be- 
tween East and West; political and economic results of the 
Erie canal and the railroads ; the constitutional question in- 
volved. 
c The Indians in Georgia and the question of state sovereignty. 

Additional topic: 
Give an account of some local industry that was established in the 
first quarter of the 19th century. 

26 Slavery and the Missouri Compromises. 

a Slavery extension, 1 783-1818: constitutional recognition of 
slavery; Fugitive Slave Act, 1793; economic and political 
effects of the cotton gin; balancing of states; extent of 
slavery, 18 18 (map). 

b The struggle for Missouri : significance of the contest ; first 
compromise (Tallmadge, Thomas) ; second compromise 
(Clay) ; constitutional questions involved ; cite the sections 
of the Constitution of the United States relating to these 
questions. 

Map work: 

Status of slavery, 182 1. Shade the portions of the country 
affected by the compromise. 

27 The Monroe Doctrine and the Panama congress. 
a Conditions leading to the Monroe doctrine. 

' b Earlier statements of the principles of the doctrine. 
c Contemporary comment on the doctrine. 
d Later developments of the doctrine. 
e The Panama congress. 

28 Political reorganization and the triumph of Jackson. 

a Growth of nationalism as shown by Supreme Court decisions. 

b The "scrub race for the presidency," 1824-25. 

c New political methods, and the election of 1828. 

d Personal features of Jackson's administration: Jackson's 
character; the Kitchen Cabinet; the spoils system intro- 
duced into national politics. 

Additional topics: 
A Indian troubles, 1824-28, 1830-32. 
B Jackson as a type of American frontier life in 1829. 
C Internal improvements. 
D Public lands. 

XI National Democracy, 1829-44. 

29 Nullification in South Carolina; the question of state sov- 

ereignty. 



244- NE W YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

a The " great debate" : nullification in theory. 

b The contest with South Carolina: nullification in "practice. 

c Compare the action of South Carolina in 1832-33 with that of 
(1) Virginia and Kentucky in 1798-99; (2) Massachusetts in 
1813-15; (3) Georgia in 1825-27. [see sections 20, a; 23, c 
(Hartford convention, etc.); and 25, c, or 28, Additional. 
Topic^]. 

30 Financial questions, 1830-42. 

a Jackson's war on the bank: objection to the bank; election 
of 1832; removal of deposits ; censure and protest. 

b Financial depression, 1837-40: "pet banks"; distribution 
of surplus revenue; specie circular; panic of 1837; inde- 
pendent treasury, 1840 (1846). 

c Whig financial measures; Tyler's bank vetoes; tariff of 
1842. 

Additional topics: 
A Nominating conventions. '\ 

B "Why great men are not chosen presidents." 
C Ashburton treaty, 1842. 

31 Antislavery agitation, 1831-38. 
a Actual conditions of slavery. 

b Revival of the slavery question: a period of general moral 
and religious revival ; new character of the agitation ; leaders. 

c Northern opposition to the abolitionists: public meetings 
and protests ; riots ; social ostracism. 

d Constitutional questions involved: right of petition; free 
speech; use of the mails. 

XII Slavery in the territories, 1844-60. 

3 2 Annexation of Texas and the Mexican War. 
a Independence of Texas. 
b Annexation of Texas : Tyler's attempt ; the election of 1844; 

how annexation was accomplished. 
c War with Mexico : immediate origin ; campaigns of Taylor, 

Scott, Fremont and Kearny; Wilmot Proviso; treaty of 

peace. 
33 Struggle over slavery in the territories. 

a Compromise of 1850: slavery in the Mexican cession. 

(1) Settlement of California. (3) Discussion of compromise 

measures. (3) Workings of the Fugitive Slave Law: the 

Shadrach case ; the underground railroad ; Sumner's speech 

in favor of the repeal of the law. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 245 

b The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the struggle for Kansas: 
Douglas's real object; Topeka and Lecompton constitu- 
tions ; civil war in Kansas ; English bill. 

c Dred Scott Decision, 1857 : slavery throughout the territories 

d Lincoln-Douglas debates, 1858: the issues defined. 

e John Brown's raid, 1859. 

f The election of i860: split in the Democratic party; the 
Republican convention ; the campaign. 

Map work: 

a Show by a series of maps the status of slavery in 185 1, 

1855, i860. 
b Show by a series of charts the sectionalization of political 

parties in the elections of 1852, 1856, i860. 

Additional topics: 
A Webster's services to the idea of national union. 
B Clay's character and services. 
C Uncle Tom's Cabin. 
D Cuba and the Ostend Manifesto 
E The Isthmian canal question. 
F The Know-nothing party.' 
G The panic of 1857. 

XIII Secession and Civil War, 1860-1865. 

34 Secession of the Southern States. 

a Underlying causes ; process of secession ; Constitution of the 

Southern Confederacy. 
b Attempts at compromise. 
c Abraham Lincoln and his policy. 

Map work: 

Seceding states. Indicate, also, the loyal, but slave-holding, 
states. 

Additional topic: 
Summary of state sovereignty ideas, 1783-1861. 

35 The Civil War, 1861-65. 

a Fort Sumter, and the uprising of the North. 

b The sections in 186 1 compared: population; economic re- 
sources ; military spirit. 

c General plan of campaign and chief military events. 186 1 
Bull Run, and the organization of the eastern army by 
McClellan. 1862 East: Peninsular campaign, Antietam, 
Fredericksburg; West: Opening of the Mississippi — Forts 
Henry and Donelson, Shiloh, New Orleans; eastern Ten- 



246 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

nessee: to isolate the Gulf States. 1863 East: Chancellors - 
ville, Gettysburg; West: Vicksburg; eastern Tennessee: 
Chickamauga, Chattanooga. 1864 East: Grant's move on 
Richmond, Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley; West: Sher- 
man's march from Chattanooga to Atlanta; "from Atlanta 
to the Sea"; Thomas's campaign and its importance. 1865 
Closing in on Lee; Appomattox. 1861-65 The work of the 
navy. 

d Financial management of the war : tariff ; internal taxation ; 
paper money; national banking system. 

e Attitude of Europe toward the war. 

/ Conditions incidental to war; enlistments; bounties; prison 
life ; camps ; railroad and telegraph ; sanitary and Christian 
commissions ; work of the pupil's own town or city. 

g Northern opposition to the war. 

h Emancipation. 

Additional topics; 

A Grant's military ability. 

B Lee as a general. 

C Draft riot in New York city. 

XIV Problems of peace, 1865- 1904. 

36 Reconstruction, the new south, and the race problems. 

a Principles of reconstruction: policy of Lincoln and of John- 
son; congressional policy; the Reconstruction Act of 1867; 
constitutional amendments. 

b Process of reconstruction: conditions in the South at the 
close of the war ; southern opposition to the freedmen ; freed- 
men's bureau; carpetbag government; struggle between 
Congress and President Johnson. 

c The new South and the race problem: economic develop- 
ment; social and industrial progress of the negro; revision 
of constitutions of Southern States. 

37 Political problems since 1865. 

a Party contests: Liberal Republicans, 1872; Hayes-Tilden 
contest, 1876-77; Democratic triumph, 1884; split in Demo- 
cratic party, 1896; party issue. 

b Civil service reform. 

c Foreign relations, 1865-1904: purchase of Alaska ; treaty of 
187 1 with Great Britain, and the Geneva award; Venezuelan 
affair, 1895; annexation of Hawaii ; war with Spain ; Philip- 



AMERICAN HISTORY 247 

pine problem; independence of Cuba; American policy in 
China; Isthmian canal. 
d Problems of municipal government. 

38 Economic problems since 1865. 

a The tariff: attempts to reduce the war tariff; Cleveland's 
tariff message, 1887; the McKinley Act, 1890; the Wilson 
Act, 1894; the Dingley Act, 1897; movement for reciprocity 
and tariff reform. 

b Currency: resumption of specie payments ; the silver coinage 
struggle. 

c Combinations of labor and of capital: labor unions; trusts; 
strikes and lockouts; growth of railroads; regulation of in- 
terstate commerce; the Northern Securities case. 

39 Summary and review of American history. 

a Chief factors in the progress from colonies to nation, from 

1607 a.d. to the present. 
b The United States at the present day: population; re- 
sources; conditions, social, political, economic. 
c "Some reasons why the American republic may endure." 

Additional topics: 
A Summary of the principal changes made in the Constitution of the 

State of New York by the revisions of 182 1, 1846 and 1894. 
B Dangers that threaten free government in America. 



GROUP 4 (concluded) 

[ SOCIAL SCIENCE 

Civil government Economics 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Introduction 

That the public school exists for good citizenship is axiomatic. 
It follows then that definite instruction in regard to civic rights 
and duties and the general functions of government should occupy 
no inconsiderable place in the school curriculum. 

Unfortunately the teaching of civil government hitherto has not 
produced satisfactory results. Too often it has yielded words 
without ideas, phrases without meaning. Even if the ideas gained 
by the pupil have been clear, they have been neither vivid nor 
closely related — mere memory burdens to be carried to the exam- 
ination and then dumped. 

In truth, the subject is difficult of approach. Two avenues are 
open to the pupil, experience and historical knowledge; but most 
high school pupils, even, have had small experience of government 
beyond the home and the school and very many have had little his- 
torical instruction. Experience is the only possible road for the 
grade pupil; but both approaches should be traversed by the 
advanced pupils of the high school. 

If, then, civics in the high school is to be anything more than a 
review of civics in the grades, if it is to fill any worthy and respect- 
able place in the curriculum, it must rest on some foundation of 
historical knowledge and specially on some knowledge of that peo- 
ple from whom nearly all our best institutions of government were 
derived. 

In regard to the extensive syllabus here presented, the following 
explanations are offered. 

Civil government is not recommended, and will not be accepted, 
as a substitute for the course of American history, which has been 
planned to include continuous instruction in civics. American 
history will receive the credits of a five hour course while civil 
government is offered as a two hour course. Students who pur- 
sue the course of American history as outlined in the history syl- 

248 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 249 

labus will receive "credit for civil government on all certificates 
which call for civics. 

This outline has been prepared for those who specially need the 
subject of civics for professional certificates or for civil service 
examinations and for those who can not find time for the full course 
of American history. 

It is hoped that this outline will prove of some value to teachers 
of American history who wish specially to emphasize civil govern- 
ment in their teaching and to any who may find the bibliographic 
references adapted to their library facilities. 

The bibliographic references have been made from a compara- 
tively small number of books most of which either are, or should 
be, in every high school library. For obvious reasons all references 
to books commonly used as textbooks of civil government in this 
State have been excluded; but teachers may greatly add to the 
value of this outline by making for their own classes appropriate 
references to five or six standard textbooks. 

It is not expected that each pupil will search each reference con- 
tained in the syllabus; though teachers should become familiar 
with all the references, that they may assist pupils to make wise 
selections of material, properly organize notebook work and know 
the subject-matter on which examinations may be based. 

It is earnestly desired that this syllabus may lead to an in- 
creased use of the notebook and the library — of the notebook as 
an aid to self-expression and self -activity, of the library as a door- 
way to intellectual fellowship. 




I C 1 The necessity for government. 

Government. -J 2 The purpose of government. 

( 3 Departments of government. 



II 

Early forms of 
government. 



1 Patriarchal. ) 

2 Clan. f 

3 Tribe. ) 

4 State. ) 

5 Federation. 



: Conditions in England that favored colony 
III planting. 2 

Colony planting < 2 English origins of American government. 2 
in America. | 3 Typical American colonies. 3 

4 Local governments ; town and county. ' 1 



250 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



"3 . 

S3 u 
% 6 


General survey of the field (continued) 


.-. ,» 


3 

O to 
+>'o 

G u 

5 j> 

o X 


PL, 










<u o 


3 


IV . 
Government in 

the colonies 

prior to the 

Revolution. 

V 
Steps toward 
colonial union. 


2 

3 

2 

3 


Nature of the first charters. 
The necessity for self-government. 
The need for control by the home 
ment. 

The New England Confederation 
The first colonial congress. 
The Albany Congress. 


} 

govern- 

1 


i 

2 

I 
I 


6 


4 

5 
6 


The Stamp Act Congress. 

The first Continental Congress. 
Strife of colonial legislatures with royal 
and proprietary governors. 


I 
I 
2 


7 


VI 
The Revolution 
and Articles of 
Confederation. 


r i 

2 


Causes of the Revolution. 
The second Continental Congress. 
Formation of state governments. 
The Articles of Confederation. 




2 
2 

I 
2 


3 
r 3 


VII 
The Old North- 
west Territory. 

VIII 
The Constitution. 


1 

3 
4 

5 
6 

I 7 


The land. 

A national territory. 

The federal convention. 
Adoption of the Constitution. 
Departments of government established. 
Miscellaneous provisions of the Constitu- 
tion. 
Overlapping powers. 
Amendments. (_ 
The elastic clause \ 


I 
2 

I 
I 

8 

i 
i 

i 


14 


IX 

Politicalfparties. 


r i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

I 7 


General principles on which parties divided. 

The Federalists. 

Jeffersonian Republicans. 

Reorganization of parties. 

Democrats and Whigs. 

Republicans and Democrats. 

Party machinery. 


i 

2 
2 
I 
2 
2 
4 


14 


X 
Present govern- 
ment as 

developed under 
the Constitution. 


r i 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

L 7 


The suffrage and its extension 

Congress at work. 

The executive department. 

Federal courts. 

The civil service. 

Taxation. 

Territories. 




I 
2 

4 
i 

2 
2 
2 


3 


XI 
Foreign 
relations. 


!.; 


International law. 
Diplomatic agents. 
The Monroe Doctrine. 

The first Constitution. 
Revisions of the Constitution. 
Present government of New York 




I 
I 
I 


12 


XII 
The Govern- 
ment of New 
York State. 


r i 

2 




I 

2 

9 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 251 



s- 




General survey of the field (concluded) 



3"! 
o 3 



a. 



Cities the first states. \ 

Roman municipia. j 

Cities the centers of medieval progress. 

Drift of population toward cities. 

American city charters. 

City government. 



Outlines of civil government 
Government. 

1 The necessity for government. 

a The family, the school, the playground. 

Reference: Dole, American Citizen, 3-13. 
b The school district, the town, the village or city, the county- 
References: Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans, 45 and 
126; Dole, American Citizen, 51-54. 
c The state and the nation. 
References: Dole, American Citizen, 55-57; Constitution of 
the United States, art. I, § 8-10. 

2 The purpose of government. 

References: Hinsdale, The American Government, 10 and 11; 
Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans, 17-24. 

Additional topics: 

A An analysis of a copy of the school rules, of the rules of a debat- 
ing or literary society, of the rules of baseball, to show duties and 
prohibitions or to show the purpose of the rules, i.e. instruction 
or punishment of offenses. 

B The reading of a copy of the proceedings! of the last town meeting. 

C A partial analysis of the annual report of the proceedings of the 
board of supervisors, showing the different classes of resolutions: 

(1) providing for taxation, (2) auditing bills, (3) caring for county 
property, (4) relating to care of criminals and paupers. 

D A partial analysis of the city or village ordinances, showing the 
principal subjects of legislation, such as (1) streets and sidewalks, 

(2) waterworks, (3) public health, (4) fire, (5) general misde- 
meanors. 

E A selection, from the index of a recent copy of the laws of New 
York (session laws), of several of the most important subjects of 
legislation. 

F A selection from a recent copy of the Congressional Record of some 
of the most important subjects of national legislation. 



: If not published, apply to town clerk. 



252 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Departments of government. 

Division of the functions of government into legislative, execu- 
tive, judicial. 

References: Constitution of the United States, art. I, II and 
III; Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans, 28, 29. 

Additional topic: 
A chart showing how government is divided into legislative, executive 
and judicial departments in the state, the county, the town, the 
village or city. 

II Early forms of government. 

Reference: Hinsdale, American Government, 14, 15. 

1 Patriarchal. 

References: Genesis, ch. 13, 14; Myers, Ancient History, 355, 
356; Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 28, 29; Bury, 
History of Greece, 69, 70; West, Ancient History, 260-66; 
How & Leigh, History of Rome, 40. 

2 Clan. 

References: Genesis, ch. 37, 46; How & Leigh, History of 
Rome, 41 ; Larned, History for Ready Reference, see " Gens "; 
International Cyclopedia, see " Clan." 

3 Tribe. 

References: Anderson -Flick, History of New York State, 6; 
Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 22; How & Leigh 
History of Rome, 44, 45 ; Bury, History of Greece, 69-75. 
Possible confusion may arise from different uses of the words "clan" 
and " tribe " by different authors. Mistakes maybe avoided by remem- 
bering that strictly speaking the clan is the enlarged family, bound 
together by blood ties and that the tribe is a larger unit made up 
of clans. Midway between the Greek clan, genos, and the Greek tribe, 
phyle, was the phratry or brotherhood and between the Roman clan, gens, 
and the Roman tribe was the curia. Similarly in England we find the 
"hundred," apolitical division intermediate between the town and the 
shire. 

4 The state. 

a The Greek and Roman city-state. 
References: Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 30; Myers, 
Ancient History, r?v. ed., 127, 128, 358; West, Ancient 
History, 91-94. 
b Fusion of the tribes or smaller kingdoms in England. 

References: Green, Short History of England, 44; Coman 
& Kendall, History of England, 37; Cheney, Short History 
of England, 56. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 253 

The federation. 

a The Confederacy of Delos. 

References: Bury, History of Greece, 328; West, Ancient 
History, 159-60; Myers, Ancient History, 202. 
b Rome and Italy. 

References: Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 97-104; 
How & Leigh, History of Rome, 133-35; Morey, Outlines 
of Roman History, 93, 94; Myers, Ancient History, 401-3. 
c The States General (Holland). 

References: West, Modern History, 177, 242-44; Myers, Mod- 
ern History, 368-75. 
d Switzerland. 

References: Myers, Middle Ages, 418-20; West, Modern 
U- History, 174. 
e Iroquois confederacy. 

References: see '' Iroquois," Larned, History for Ready Refer- 
i ence; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, ch. 1; Elson, 

History of the United States, 38, note. 

Ill Colony planting in America. 

1 Conditions in England that favored colonial enterprise. 

a England and Spain; Gilbert, Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins. 
References: Thwaites, Colonies, 37, 42, 43, 52; Gardiner, 
Students' History of England, 447; Eggleston, Beginners 
of a Nation, 14-18; Green, Short History of the English 
People, 413-20. 
b Economic conditions in England. 
( References: Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 46-49; Thwaites, Colonies, 

53. 65 ; Cheney, Short History of England, 367, 368. 
c Religious and political differences. 

References: Thwaites, Colonies, 114, 115; Fiske, Beginnings 
of New England, 65, 66, 68-71; Gardiner, Students' His- 
tory of England, 481, 482; Eggleston, Beginners, 118, 119. 

2 The English origins of American government. 

a The town, the parish, the shire or county, the hundred, the 
moots. 
References: Green, Short History of the English People, 3, 4; 
Gardiner, Students' History of England, 31, ^3'f Cheney, 
Short History of England, 79, 80; Andrews, History of 
England, 43-45; Fiske, Beginnings, 27, 28; Thwaites, 
Colonies, 55. 



254 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

b Representative government. 

References: Fiske, Beginnings, 20-23, 31-33; Hart, Actual 
Government, 39-43. 
c Personal rights. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 21-23; see, English 
histories, Magna Charta, Petition of Right, Habeas Cor- 
pus Act, Bill of Rights; Macdonald, Select Charters, First 
Charter of Virginia, §15. 
3 Typical American colonies. 

a Virginia: Jamestown and other settlements ; Sandys's Con- 
stitution. 
References: Thwaites, Colonies, 69-73 ! Elson, United States, 
60-67; Eggleston, Beginners, 27-31; Hart, Contemporaries, 
I, 206-18. 
References: Thwaites, Co lonies, 73, 74; Elson, United States. 
67-69; Fiske, Old Virginia, 184-88; Eggleston, Beginners, 
53-58; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 218-25. 

Additional topic: 
Locate on a map of tide water Virginia some of the boroughs repre- 
sented in the first House of Burgesses (16 19). 
References: Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 186 and frontispiece map. 
b Massachusetts: Plymouth and Mayflower compact; Massa- 
chusetts Bay; representative government. 
References: Thwaites, Co lonies, 113-24; Elson, United States, 
99-103; Higginson, Larger History, 153-58; Hart, Con- 
temporaries, I, 344. 
References: Thwaites, Co lonies, 124-29; Elson, United States, 
105-8; Fiske, Beginnings, 98-106; Hart, Contemporaries, 
I, 373-82. 

Additional topics: 
A Massachusetts and other New England colonies, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Maine. 
References: Thwaites, Colonies, 140-53; Elson, United States, 
iii-iq. 
B Map of Eastern Massachusetts showing 1 2 towns settled prior to 
1640. 
References: Large map of eastern Massachusetts and a standard 
encyclopedia. 
c New York; purpose of the settlements; demands for self- 
government under Kieft and Stuyvesant; transfer to the 
English; first representative assembly, town meetings, 
charter of liberties ; division of New York into 10 counties. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 255 

References: Thwaites, Colonies, 198; 200, 201; 203-5; Elson, 
United States, 135, 136; 140-42; see also Roberts, Pren- 
tice, and Anderson-Flick, histories of New York. 

Additional topics: 
A Map of New York State, showing principal settlements made in 
the Hudson and Mohawk valleys prior to 1700. 
Reference: A standard encyclopedia; see names of principal towns. 
B The process of state formation compared with biologic cell growth 

Reference: Overton, Applied Physiology, 12, 13. 
C Communism in the Jamestown and in the Plymouth settlements. 
References: Thwaites, Colonies, 72, 73, 117, 120, 121; Elson, United 
States, 65, 102, 103; Eggleston, Beginners, 48, 49, 56, 180, 186, 
187; Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 166, 167. 
4 Local governments; town and county. 

References: Thwaites, Colonies, 55-58; Elson, United States, 
214-15; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 589-93; Hart, 
Actual Government, 169-76. 

Additional topics: 
A How local government was modified by geographic and industrial 

conditions in Virginia and Massachusetts. 
B The parish in New England and the parish in Virginia. 

References: Eggleston, Beginners, 275-325; Fiske, Old Virginia, II, 

3 J -44- 

C Beginnings of representative colonial government in Massachusetts, 
Virginia and New York compared. 
References: Fiske, Beginnings, 105-6; Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 186, 
187; Thwaites, Colonies, 127, 128, 205; Roberts, New York, 
188-90, 192. 

D Beginnings of representative government: Connecticut, Pennsyl- 
vania and Maryland. 

IV Government in the colonies prior to the Revolution. 

1 Nature of the first charters. 

References: Thwaites, Colonies, 60; Elson, United States, 61; 
Fiske, Old Virginia, 51, 52, 64; Hart, Actual Government, 
42, 1st par. 

2 The necessity for self-government. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 41, 43, last par.; Fiske, 
Beginnings , 105; F iske , Old Virginia , I, 186, 187, 240, 
243-49. 284. 

3 The need for control by the home government. 

Spanish, French and Dutch settlements in America; Indians; 
commerce; disputes between colonies; religious intolerance. 

Additional topic: 
Find in standard histories how affairs in the colonies called for regula- 
tion by the British government. 



256 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

V Steps toward colonial union, 

1 New England Confederation, 1643. 

References: Macdonald, Select Charters, no. 19; Fiske, Begin- 
nings, 153-62; Thwaites, Colonies, 156-59; Elson, United 
States, 120-21. 

2 The first colonial congress, 1690. 

References: Elson, United States, 144, 163, 164; Roberts, New 
York, I, 207, 208. 

3 The Albany Congress; Franklin's plan of union, 1754. 
References: Thwaites, Colonies, 270-71; Elson, United States, 

176, 177; Old South Leaflets, no. 9; Franklin, Autobiography, 
ch. 10; Roberts, New York, I, 316, 317. 

Additional topic: 
Summary of the legislative powers granted to the Grand Council in 
Franklin's plan. 
Reference: see sections in italics in Old South Leaflets, no. 9. 

4 The Stamp Act Congress. 
Cause; how called; acts; results. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 44-53 ; Fiske, War of 
Independence, 39-51; Elson, United States, 224-27; Hart, 
Comtemporaries, II, nos. 138, 141, 142, 143; Macdonald. 
Select Charters, nos. 57 and 59. 

Additional topic: 
From the "Declarations of Rights and Grievances of the Colonists," 
select six of the most important declarations. 
Reference: Hart, Contemporaries, II, no. 141 or Macdonald, Select 
Charters, no. 59. 

5 The First Continental Congress. 
Cause; how summoned; acts; results. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 60-63 '> Elson, 
United States, 234-36; Fiske, Revolution, I, 100-10; Mac- 
donald, Select Charters, no. 72, 73; Green, Short History of 
the English People, 777, 778; Gardiner, Students' History of 
England, 780, 782. 

Additional topics: 
A Select three important constitutional principles set forth in the 
"Declaration and Resolves" 1774. 
Reference: Macdonald, Select Charters, no. 72. 
B Committees of Correspondence. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 57, 61; Elson, United 
States, 234-36; Fiske, Revolution, I, 77-80. 
C Classes of colonies ; points of similarity. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 43, 44; Thwaites, Colonies 
58-63; Elson, United States, 210-13. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 257 

6 Strife of colonial legislatures with royal and proprietary 
governors. 
References: Thwaites, Colonies, 271-77; G. Bancroft, History 
of the United States, II, ch. 15, pt 3, or Larned, History for 
Ready Reference, 2335; Roberts, New York, I, 220, 230, 
256, 268-78, 287. 

Additional topics: 
A The principal features of the Constitution of the United States 

that were foreshadowed in colonial governments. 
B Popular rebellions in Virginia and in New York; Bacon and Leis- 

ler; causes and results. 
See indexes of standard histories. 

VI The Revolution and the Articles of Confederation. 

1 Causes. 

a Internal causes: taxation by representative bodies a funda- 
mental doctrine in England and America; the American 
theory of representation as opposed to the English theory 
and practice; spirit of liberty in the colonies. 

References: Green, Short History of the English People, 760; 
Gardiner, Students' History of England, 771; Elson, United 
States, 228; Hart, Formation of the Union, 65, 66; Hart, 
Contemporaries, II, nos. 138, 143; Cheney, Short History 
of England, 587, 588; Lecky, American Revolution, 84-92. 

b External causes: character of George 3; Navigation Acts 
and their evasions; Writs of Assistance; the Stamp Act, 
the Townshend Acts; repressive measures; attacks on 
colonial legislatures and colonial courts; the American 
Revolution, in some respects, an outgrowth of party strife 
in England. 

References: Green, Short History of England, 761, 762: Hart, 
Formation of the Union, 45-56; Elson, United States, 231- 
35; Fiske, War of Independence, I, 51; 63; 64-76; Coman & 
Kendall, History of England, 389-90; Cheney, Short His- 
tory of England, 589-92. 

2 The second Continental Congress 1775. 

First acts and attitude; change of attitude; Declaration of 
Independence. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 73-74; 75-80; Elson, 
United States, 243-44; 250-54; Fiske, Revolution, I, 158-63; 
Hart, Contemporaries, II, no. 186, 188 Hill, Liberty Docu- 
ments, 183-203. 



258 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Formation of state governments. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 80-82 ; Elson, United 
States, 252; 326; Hart, Contemporaries, II, no. 187; Hart, 
Actual Government, 46-48. 

4 The Articles of Confederation. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 104—6; 109, 
no; 1 1 5-1 7; Elson, United States, 318-24; Hart, Con- 
temporaries, II, no. 189; III, no. 41; Fiske, Critical 
Period, 94-100; 104-9; II 7 -I 9) 150-56 ; Higginson, Larger 
History of the United States, 292-97 ; Hill, Liberty Docu- 
ments, 216-26. 

Additional topics: 
A Find in some standard history or histories references to the most 
important grievances mentioned in the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. 
Reference: Declaration of Independence, found in many of the 
standard textbooks. 
B Find in the Articles of Confederation principles embodied in the 
Constitution. 
References: Old South Leaflets, no 2; Hill, Liberty Documents, 204. 
C A summary of the difficulties that disclosed the weakness of the 
Articles of Confederation. 
References: See § VI, 4 of this syllabus. 

VII The Old Northwest Territory. 

1 The land. 

The boundaries; the George Rogers Clark expedition; treaty 
of 1783; conflicting claims of Virginia, Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut and New York. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 94, 95, 97; Elson, 
United States, 292 ; 313 ; Old South Leaflets, no. 40 and 41. 

2 A national territory. 

Cession to the United States and its importance ; the Ordinance 
of 1787 and its provisions. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 107, 108, also maps 2 
and3 ; Elson, United States, 319, 320; Hinsdale, TheOldNorth- 
west, rev. ed., see preface maps and p. 165; Hinsdale, 
American Government, ch. 41; Hill, Liberty Documents, 228- 
43; Fiske, Critical Period, 203, 213; McMaster, United 
States, I, 507, 508. 

Additional topics: 
A Map showing the conflicting land claims to the Northwest Territory 
of Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 259 

B Principles of the Ordinance of 1787 that were afterward incor- 
porated in the Constitution or were adopted by state govern- 
ments. 
References: Old South Leaflets, no. 13, or Hill, Liberty Documents, 
228-36; Constitution of the United States. 

VIII The Constitution. 

1 The federal convention. 

Causes; the three great compromises. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 121-23; Elson, 
United States, 321-25; 330, 331; Hinsdale, American Govern- 
ment, ch. 8 and 9; Fiske, Critical Period, 223-90. 

2 Adoption of the Constitution; the first 10 amendments or 

"Bill of Rights." 
References: The preamble of the Constitution; Hart, Forma- 
tion of the Union, 128-32; Elson, United States, 334-37; 
Hinsdale, American Government, 127-29; Fiske, Critical 
Period, 336-50; Hill, Liberty Documents, 261-63. 

3 Departments of government established. 

References: Constitution of the United States, art. I, II, 
III; Hart, Actual Government, 53, 54. 

a The legislative department: the House of Representatives; 
composition, qualifications and choice of members, special 
powers; the Senate, composition, qualifications and choice 
of members, special powers; general powers granted to 
Congress ; general powers denied to Congress ; legislative 
powers denied to states. 
References: Hill, Liberty Documents, 245-52; Hinsdale, 
American Government, 144-232; standard textbooks of 
civics, consult indexes; Bryce, American Commonwealth, 
I, ch. 10 and 13. 

Additional topic: 
A chart showing powers granted and powers denied to each house, 
to Congress, to the states. 
b Executive department: the president; qualifications, term, 
manner of election, powers, removal from office. 
References: Hill, Liberty Documents, 253-56; Hinsdale, 
American Government, ch. 31 and 32; standard textbooks, 
see " President" in the indexes; Bryce, American Common- 
wealth,!, 53-58; Hart, Actual Government, 273-77; Elson, 
United States, 805-12; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 
270, 271; Hart, Actual Government, 304, 305. ., 



260 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

c Judicial department: organization and powers; appoint- 
ment of justices and judges; terms of office; constitu- 
tional provision in regard to salaries. 
References: Hinsdale, American Government, 296-300; stand- 
ard textbooks, see indexes, " Federal Courts," "Judiciary," 
etc.; Hart, Actual Government, 296-301. 

4 Miscellaneous provisions of the Constitution. 

Persons ; states ; the public debt ; the supremacy of the general 

government. 
References: Constitution of the United States, art. IV and 

VI; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 40, 41, 42, 44; 

standard textbooks. 

5 Overlapping powers. 

Executive and judicial powers conferred on Senate and House ; 
legislative and judicial powers conferred on the President; 
independence and authority of the judiciary. 
References: Constitution of the United States, art. II, § 2, If 2; 
art. I, §2, Tf 5; §3,116; §5, Hi; § 5, H *■ 

art. I, § 7, If 2 and 3; art. II, § 3; art. II, § 2, 
If 1 and 2. 

art. Ill, § 1 and 2; Hinsdale, American Govern- 
ment, 295. 

Additional topic: 
Make a chart showing the exceptions to the usual division and dis- 
tribution of powers among the legislative, executive and judicial 
departments. 

6 Amendments. 

Two methods of proposing amendments; two methods of 
ratifying amendments; the first 10 amendments; the nth 
amendment and its relation to the doctrine of states rights; 
the 12th amendment and its cause; the main provisions of 
the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments. 

References: Constitution, art. V; Hinsdale, American Govern- 
ment, 340, 341; Hart, Actual Government, 58, If 4, 59; Hins- 
dale, American Government, ch. 47, 48; Hart, Formation of 
the Union, 142, 146; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 259-70; 
Elson, United States, 340, 793, 796, 798, 799. 

7 The elastic clause. 

References: Compare the preamble and art. I, § 8, \ 18, of the 
Constitution; Hinsdale, American Government, 130, 232-35; 
Elson, United States, 348-51; standard textbooks of civil 
government.' 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 26l • 

IX Political parties . 

1 The general principles on which the people divided into parties. 
References: See references on 7 of the last section; Hart, 

Formation of the Union, 130; 133-35; I 4°-4 i ; Fiske, Criti- 
cal Period, 329, 344-46; Old South Leaflets, no. 12 second 
number of the Federalist; Hill, Liberty Documents, 267. 

2 The Federalists in control, 1789-1801. 

a Organization of Congress, of Cabinet, and of national courts; 
the speaker of the House. 
References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 142-46; Elson, 
United States, 342-44; Hart, Actual Government, 297; 
Hinsdale, American Government, 284-91, 293, 294. 

Additional topics: 
A Limitations in the Constitution on the national taxation. 
B Jay's treaty. 
b Revenue and finance: the tariff, the excise; the public 
debts; the National Bank. 
References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 146-47; 148-51; 
Elson, United States, 343; 344-48; Lodge, Life of Hamil- 
ton, 108-14; Hart, Contemporaries, III, no. 78; Hart, 
Contemporaries, III, no. 85 and 86; Riverside Biographical 
Series, lives of Jefferson and Hamilton; Hart, Actual 
Government, 394-96. 
Jeffersonian Republican or Democratic-Republican party, 1801- 

17: Federalists in opposition. 
a The party policy: decentralization; decrease of army and 
navy; repeal of tax laws; attack on judiciary. 
References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 180-85; Elson, 
United States, 380-83. 
b Reversal of Jeffersonian theory in the purchase of Louisiana. 
References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 188; Elson, 
United States, 383-86. 
c The War of 181 2 • foreign relations; advent of young Repub- 
licans afterward National Republicans and Whigs ; failure 
of peace policy; the Hartford convention and collapse of 
the Federalist party; industrial changes caused by the 
war; protective tariff. 
References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 191-98; 203, 204; 
217; 221; 225-29; Elson, United States, 394; 400-3; 413; 
446; 451-53; Schurz, Life of Clay, I, ch. 5. 
4 Reorganization of parties, 1817-29: the Democratic Repub- 
licans in control. 



262 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

a New movements, new issues and new methods. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 224-31; 238-41; 
245-51 ; 253-55 ; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 4-7 ; 9-17 ; 
Elson, United States, 452, 453; 456-61; 464, 466. 

b Rivalry of Clay and Jackson and the formation of new 
parties. 
References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17-26; Elson, 
United States, 468, 469 ; lives of Jackson and Clay; Schurz, 
Clay, and Sumner, Jackson in the American Statesmen 
Series, are full and interesting; Brown, Jackson in the 
Riverside Biographical Series, is brief but good. 

5 Democrats and Whigs, 1829-61. 

a Jackson: the United States Bank; nullification. 

References: Wilson, .Division and Reunion, 34, 35; 59-65, 
72-82; Elson, United States, 480, 481; 487-96. 
b Texas: revival of sectional controversy; Abolitionist and 
Free Soil parties. 
References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 143-47; 165; 
169; Elson, United States, 533, 534. 
c California and the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. 

References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 172-78; Elson, 
United States, 540-56. 
d The repeal of the Missouri Compromise and the triumph of 
the Republican party. 
References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 182-85; 187,188; 
199-208; Elson, United States, 571-79; Hart, Source 
Book, nos. 108, 109, in; Old South Leaflets, no. 82, 83. 

6 Republicans and Democrats, 1861 . 

a Union or disunion. 

References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 208-12; 215; 
218-21; 226, 227; 232, 233; Elson, United States, 628-33; 
639-45; 712-16; 730-32. Morse, Life of Lincoln. 
b The 13th, 14th and 15th amendments. 

References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 259-69; Elson, 
United States, 793-94; 796; 799. 
c Reconstruction of the South. 

References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 254-57; 260-62; 
266-70; 275, 276; Elson, United States, 791-805; Hart, 
Source Book, no. 129, 130, 131, 132. 
d Tariff, finance and commerce. 

References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 290-92, 294,296; 
Elson, United States, 829-32; 864; 865-68; 874; 875; 
878,879; 886-89; Hart, Source Book, no. 136. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 263 

7 Party machinery. 
Original intent of the Constitution in regard to the choice of 
president; the election of Jefferson; the 12th amendment; 
the election of 1876 and 1877; the Congressional caucus; 
nominations by state Legislatures; nominating conventions; 
party platforms ; the machine; party leaders. 
References: compare Constitution of the United States, art II, 
§ 1, Tf 2 and the 12th amendment; Hart, Formation of the 
Union, 172 and 173 ; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17, 19, 
62, 63; 283-86; Elson, United States, 372; 466; 507; 
835-41; Hart, Actual Government, 87-112; Hinsdale, 
American Government, ch. 29 and 30; Bryce, American 
Commonwealth, ch. 53-63. 

Additional topics: 
A Make a chart showing in parallel columns the names of the two 

principal opposing parties and the policies favored by each. 
B Find arguments for or against the election of president by popular 

vote. 

X Present government as developed under the Constitution. 

1 The suffrage and its extension. 

a Civil and political rights ; naturalization ; voting. 

References: See indexes, standard textbooks of civil gov- 
ernment; Hinsdale, American Government, 216-17. 
b History of the suffrage. 

References: Elson, United States, 326; 479, 480; 796-98; 
Thwaites, Colonies, 142; Hart, Formation of the Union, 
14; 246; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 15, 16; 268-70; 
Hinsdale, American Government, ch. LIV; Hart, Actual 
Government, 66-7 1 ; 82-84. 
c Woman suffrage. 

References: Bryce, American Commonwealth, II, 549-62; 
Hart, Actual Government, 70. 

2 Congress at work. 

a The speaker of the House. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 142; Elson, 

United States, 868; Hinsdale, American Government, 151, 

152; Hart, Actual Government, 231—33. 
b The Senate and its prerogatives. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 216-19, 2 7*i Elson, 

United States, 805 ; 852-53 ; Hinsdale, American Government, 

160-63; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 104—10. 
c Legislative committees and legislative debate; compare 

House and Senate. 



264 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 233-36; 239-40; 242; 
248, 249; Hinsdale, American Government, 192, 193; 
Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 154-58; see standard 
textbooks of civil government for committees, bills. 
d The making of a law. 

References: See standard textbooks of civil government. 

3 The executive department. 

a The Cabinet: present Cabinet compared with the first 
Cabinet; appointment and removal of Cabinet officers; 
general duties of each department of the Cabinet. 
References: See standard textbooks of civil government; 
Hart, Formation of the Union, 144-45; Elson, United 
States, 343, 344; Hart, Actual Government, 277-82; Hins- 
dale, American Government, 284-91. 

b President's powers under the Constitution; the president's 
influence. 
References: Constitution of the United States, art. II, §2 and 
3; see Standard textbooks of civil government; Hinsdale, 
American Government, ch. 32; Hart, Actual Government, 
269-74; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 224-27. 

4 Federal courts. 

a Classes of courts: Supreme; Circuit Court of Appeals; 
Circuit Courts; District Courts, Court of Claims. 
References: Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 34; Hart, 
Actual Government, 301-4; see standard textbooks of 
civil government. 
b The jurisdiction of federal courts: cases involving the Con- 
stitution ; federal law ; federal parties and states. 
References: Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 35. 36; 
Hart, Actual Government, 309-14; Bryce, American 
Commonwealth, I, 241-43; standard textbooks of civil 
government. 
c Federal writs: habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction. 

Reference: Hart, Actual Government, 307, 308. 
d The United States courts and federal statutes. 

References: Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 268-71; 
Hart, Actual Government, 318, 319. 

5 The civil service. 
a History. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 174; 179; 180; 
246; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 27—34; 277; 293, 294; 
Elson, United States , 381-83; 484; 853-56; Hart, So urce 
Book, 363-65; Hart,*" Actual Government, 282-90. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 265 

b Civil Service Commission. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 290-92; Bryce, 
American Commonwealth, II, 847. 
c Difficulties in enforcing civil service laws. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 292-94; Bryce, 
American Commonwealth, II, 27; 139-41. 

6 Taxation. 

a Direct and indirect taxes. 

b Constitutional limitations on the taxing power of the United 
States. 

c Constitutional limitations on the taxing power of the states. 

d General policy of the United States in regard to direct taxes. 

e Advantages and dangers of indirect taxation. 

References: Constitution of the United States, art. I, § 8, 
Tf 1 ; § 9, Tl 4-6 ; §10,^2 and 3 ; standard textbooks of civil 
government ; Hinsdale, American Government, 194-98 ; 240, 
241; 246; Hart, Actual Government, 383-406. 

Additional topic: 
Natural limitations of taxation. 
References : See "Taxation" in standard textbooks of political economy. 

7 Territories. 

a The first territorial organization. 

References: [See § VII of this syllabus.] 

b Accessions of territory. 

References: Hinsdale, American Government, 332-35; Hart, 
Actual Government, 335-46. 

c Organized dependencies or territories. Elson, United States, 
898, 899; Hart, Actual Government, 364-69. 

d Unorganized or temporary dependencies. Hinsdale, Ameri- 
can Government, 330-33 : Elson, United States, 900-2 ; Hart, 
Actual Government, 371, 372. . 

XI Foreign relations. ',. ] 

1 International law. 

References: See dictionaries, cyclopedias and standard text- 
books of civil government for the definition of international 
law. 

2 Diplomatic agents, the general classes. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 433—39; standard 
textbooks of civil government. 

3 The Monroe Doctrine. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 241-44; Wilson, 
Division and Reunion, 272; Elson, United States, 463-64; 
778, 779; 884. 



266 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Additional topics: 
A Make a chart of important treaties negotiated by the United States 

showing briefly the terms secured. 
B Make a list of 10 important rules generally recognized as parts of 

international law. 
C Arbitration between England and the United States. 
D The Hague Conference, 1899. 

References: Pupils should find their own references to the above 
topics and cite their references in their paper. 

XII The government of New York State. 

1 The first Constitution of New York. 

References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 80-82; Elson, 
United States, 252 ; Roberts, New York, II, 434-36; Prentice, 
History of New York, 255-61. 

2 Revisions of the Constitution. 

References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 12-16; Elson, 
United States, 480; Roberts, New York, II, 562-71; 
Prentice, History of New York, 378-80; 404, 405 ; Anderson- 
Flick, Short History of the State of New York, 136-38; 186- 
87; 272-73. 

3 Present government of New York. 

References: Constitution of New York State; standard text- 
books of civil government. 

a Citizens and their rights. 

b Voters and voting. 

c The Legislature: the Senate, the Assembly; special powers 
of each branch; restraints on legislation; appropriation 
bills. 

d The executive: qualifications and powers; the veto; ad- 
ministrative offices. 

e The judiciary: classes of courts; choice of justices and 
judges. 

/ State debts and state credit; local debts and local credit. 

g The school system. 

h County government. 

i State militia. 

j Amendments. 

Additional topic: 
Find resemblances between the Constitution of New York State and 
the federal Constitution. 

XIII Cities. 

1 Cities the first states. 
References: [See § II, 4, a of this syllabus.] 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 267 

2 Roman municipia. 

References: Myers', Ancient History, 396; Morey, Outlines of 
Roman History, 93. 

3 Cities the centers of medieval progress. 
a City charters. 

References: Green, Short History of the English People, 92, 
93 ; Taswell Langmead, English Constitutional History, 83 ; 
Gardiner, Student's History of England, 168-69; West, 
Modern History, 121-27. 
b Italian cities. 
References: Robinson, Readings in European History, I, 304, 
305; West, Modern History, 127-29; Myers, Middle Ages, 
291-95. 
c Hanseatic League. 

References: West, Modern History 129-32; Robinson, 
Readings in European History, 412-15; Myers, Middle 
Ages, 289-93. 
d Medieval cities and education. 

References: Myers, Middle Ages, 308, 309; West, Modern 
History, 194-99. 

4 Drift of population toward cities since 1800. 

References: Elson, United States, 478; Hart, Actual Gov- 
ernment, 181, 182; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 622. 

5 American city charters. 

References: Hart, Actual Government, 183-88; standard text- 
books of civil government; Bryce, American Commonwealth, 
I, 623. 

6 City government. 

General powers and duties of aldermen, mayor and city judges; 

the city boards. 
References: standard textbooks of civil government; a copy 

of the local city charter; Hart, Actual Government^, 186-99. 

Additional topic: 
Municipal ownership of public utilities. 

References: Standard textbooks of political economy ; Bryce, American 
Commonwealth, I, 648, 649. 



268 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



ECONOMICS 
Production. 

i Nature. 
a Environment: climate; land surfaces; geologic character. 
b Natural agents: animate agents; inanimate agents. 

2 Wealth. 

a Nature of wealth: distinction between the popular con- 
ception and the economic conception of wealth; material 
wealth; immaterial wealth; characteristics of material 
wealth. 

b Utility : definition ; utility as measured by money. 

c Factors in production of material wealth: natural agents; 
land; labor; capital. 

3 Labor. 

a Historical: gild period in England; domestic period in Eng- 
land; factory period in England; problems to which the 
factory system gave rise; methods of agriculture and of manu- 
facture before the Industrial Revolution ; the Industrial Revo- 
lution ; hardships to labor during the process of readjustment ; 
the French Revolution of 1848 in its relation to labor and 
capital; the French Commune, its economic significance. 
Industrial changes in the United States following the War of 
181 2; rapid industrial development in the United States. 

b Kinds of labor: productive labor; unproductive labor; physi- 
cal labor; mental labor. 

c Labor as a factor in production: changes wrought by labor; 
division of labor ; separation of employments ; specialization 
of skill ; influence of specialization of skill on combination ; 
division of labor, its advantages and disadvantages; 
division of labor limited by the nature of the process, by 
amount of capital, by extent of markets. 

4 Capital. 

a Nature of capital: the root idea of capital; fixed capital; 
circulating capital; productive capital. 

b Production of capital: beginning of capital ; growth of capi- 
tal ; ability and disposition of the individual to save capital. 

c Capital as a factor in production: the workman's tools; the 
manufacturer's plant and working capital; the capitalist's 
investments in industry and in commerce; borrowed capi- 
tal as a factor in production. 



El ONOMICS 269 

II Exchange. 

1 Value. 

Nature of value; nominal value, real value; distinction be- 
tween value and price; normal value; value in exchange; 
general rise of values impossible. 

2 Money. 

a Nature of money; primary function of money. 

b Historical: barter; need of common denominator of value; 
various commodities used as money in the past ; silver and 
gold coinage in the United States; silver and gold dollars 
of 1792; weight of the gold dollar reduced (1834); coinage 
of silver prohibited (1873); the Bland Act; the Sherman 
Act and its detrimental effects ; repeal of the Sherman Act. 

c Metallic money: qualities of good metallic money; qualities 
of gold and silver fitting them for use as money; relative 
merits of gold and silver for use in coinage; the world's 
present and prospective supply of gold and silver; the gold 
standard; Gresham's Law; bimetallism; international bi- 
metallism. 

d Credit money: convertible and inconvertible notes ; inflation; 
present forms of paper money in use in the United States, 
their security and stability of value. 

3 Banks and banking. 

a Historical: Jewish money lenders; Florentine banks and 
bankers; origin and development of banking in England; 
the Bank of England; origin and development of banking 
in the United States ; the United States bank ; state banks ; 
" wildcat banks " ; national banks. 

b Functions of banks: deposits; loans; discounts; fluctuation 
in rates of discount; domestic and foreign exchanges; issues 
of notes ; bank money, its limits and safeguards ; reserves 
and their management; excess and scarcity of currency. 

4 Credit. 

a Nature of credit: forms of credit; book accounts; checks; 

drafts and bills of exchange; loans; call and time loans; 

negotiable paper; bank credits; the clearing house. 
b Useful functions of credit: standard of deferred payments; 

Value in developing the natural resources of a country and 

in promoting its industries; value in mercantile enterprises. 
c Abuse of credit: overconfidence ; extravagance in personal 

consumption; promotion of doubtful and shady enterprises; 

overcapitalization; speculation; the cause of commercial 

crises. 



270 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

5 International trade. 

Based on comparative cost of production; balance of trade; 
fluctuations in trade balances; advantages of international 
trade. 

Free trade and protection : English practices past and present ; 
repeal of the Corn Law in England; past policies in the 
United States regarding protection; tariff for revenue; 
tariff for protection; the laisser-faire doctrine; leading 
arguments for free trade and for protection stated and com- 
pared; relative strength of these arguments as forming a 
basis of action on the part of the United States govern- 
ment; tariff revision; reciprocity. 

Ill Distribution. 

1 Interest. 

a Nature of interest: causes giving rise to interest; owner- 
ship of capital. 

b Rates of interest: causes of differences in rates in different 
countries and localities at different times ; volume of loanable 
money; risks involved in loans; security and permanency 
of investment ; the returns of industry as a factor in interest 
rates ; probable general tendency of interest rates to decline ; 
influences tending to retard decline in rates. 

2 Rent. 

a Nature of rent: ground rent; agricultural- rent ; house rent. 

b Rent values: causes affecting the rent values of farms, 
houses and stores in different localities and at different 
times; improvements as affecting rents; the "unearned 
increment"; diminishing returns from rents; urban rents. 

3 Wages. 

a Nature of wages: nominal wages; real wages; customary 
wage; living wage. 

b Remuneration of labor: labor regarded as a commodity; 
the labor market; supply and demand; Ricardo's "iron 
law of wages"; standard of comfort; underpaid service; 
the workman's just share; wages as influenced by cost of 
living, by individual characteristics, by efficiency of ser- 
vice, by agreeableness of occupation, by social esteem, by 
personal risks and chances of success, by opportunities foi 
promotion; wages as affected by the extensive use of 
machinery, by modern methods of industrial organization, 
by extensive international trade; wages as influenced by 
labor organizations; the wages^of women. 



ECONOMICS 27I 

4 Profits. 

Nature of profits: normal profits; abnormal profits through 
monopoly; tendency of profits to a minimum; profits in 
times of business prosperity; profits in times of business 
depression ; business methods and business management as 
affecting profits. 

5 Taxation. 

Nature of taxation: the right of government to levy taxes; 
proper objects of government expenditure ; difficulties attend- 
ing taxation; general principles that should govern in taxa- 
tion; direct taxes; indirect taxes; general property tax; 
the single tax; methods of raising revenue practised by 
the United States government; methods of raising revenue 
practised by the New York State government 

IV Applied economics. 

1 Modern industrial organization. 

a Steps in industrial evolution: individual endeavor; part- 
nership; corporation; giant industries, trusts. 

b The capitalist and entrepreneur: functions of each in the 
modern industrial system. 

c The trust: nature of a trust; purposes in its organization; 
effect on volume of production, cost of production, and 
selling prices; effect on wages of workmen; evils arising 
from the organization of trusts; proper methods of regu- 
lating and restraining trusts. 

2 Relations of labor and capital. 

a Causes of the conflict of labor and capital ; evils to labor and 
to capital resulting from this conflict; origin of trade- 
unions; trade-unions in England; labor organizations in 
the United States; useful functions of labor organizations; 
influence of labor organizations on workmen; the "walking 
delegate"; the strike as a remedy for labor troubles; the 
boycott; the lockout; conciliation, mediation, arbitration. 

b The proper 1 elation of labor and capital — partners in in- 
dustry; effect of such relationship on wages and profits. 

3 Socialism. 

a Various uses of the term socialism ; features common to all 
modern socialistic schemes; objections to socialism as a 
scheme for the production and distribution of wealth. 

b Communism: profit-sharing, its possibilities and dangers; 
municipal ownership of public utilities; nationalization of 
the telegraph and telephone; land nationalization; the 
nationalization of capital. 



GROUP 5 
BUSINESS SUBJECTS 
Elementary bookkeeping Commercial geography 

Advanced bookkeeping Business correspondence 

Business practice and technics Business writing 

Business arithmetic Stenography 

Commercial law Typewriting 

History of commerce 

BUSINESS CREDENTIALS 

Four state business credentials are offered as follows: (i) state 
business diploma, (2) state stenographers diploma, (3) state busi- 
ness certificate, (4) state stenographers certificate. 

Diplomas 

Diplomas are issued only to those who have an education equiv- 
alent to graduation at a registered New York state high school. 
If the course has not included American history, civics, and econo- 
mics, 1 Regents examinations in these subjects must be passed. 

State business diploma. To obtain the state business diploma 
candidates having the required preliminary education must be 
certified as having completed a year's course in a registered pro- 
prietary business school. Students who have completed a four 
year commercial course in a registered high school are also eligible 
to obtain the diploma, but every candidate is required to 
pass examinations in elementary bookkeeping, advanced book- 
keeping, business practice and technics, business arithmetic, com- 
mercial law, history of commerce, 1 commercial geography, 2 business 
correspondence and business writing. 

State stenographers diploma. The state stenographer's diploma 
is granted on the same terms as the state business diploma, except 
as to the technical examinations, which are as follows: stenog- 
raphy (second test) 3 100 words a minute passed at 90%; type- 
writing; business correspondence. 

Certificates 
State business certificate. This credential will be granted, with- 
out regard to preliminary education, to any candidate who passes 
the technical examinations set for the state business diploma. 

1 English history or ancient history may be substituted for economics. 

typewriting and stenography (ioo word test, passed at 90%) may be offered in place of 
commercial geography and history of commerce for the state business certificate. 

s There is a first test (50 words a minute) open to the student. Each test is given 2 counts, 
but one who completes the second test is credited with the first also. 

272 



ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING 273 

State stenographers certificate. This credential will be granted, 
without regard to preliminary education, to any candidate who 
passes the technical examinations set for the state stenographers 
diploma. 

Credentials should be claimed. Business and stenographers 
credentials when earned should be promptly claimed by the schools, 
with remittance of fee. 

Outlines of the work. Tests for the state credentials will be 
based on the following outlines: 

ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING 

The chief divisions of this subject toward which the examina- 
tions are mainly directed are as follows : computations ; records of 
business ; business forms and correspondence ; technical terms. 

1 Computations. The candidate, should be able to make at 
sight all ordinary business computations, relating to: 

Extending and footing a bill of items. 

Simple interest and other problems in percentage, bank discount 
and true discount or present worth. 

Interest when partial payments have been made. 
Commission and brokerage. 
Simple problems in partnership settlements. 
Rapid calculation and ready use of fractions. 

2 Recording business transactions. The candidate should be 
able to open a simple set of books for an ordinary business, by 
single entry or by double entry, and to make entries necessary to 
record any ordinary transaction in such a way that the exact na- 
ture of the transaction may be clearly understood. The candidate 
should be able to change a set of books from single to double entry, 
and to explain the main points of difference between the two sys- 
tems. He should be acquainted with the following books, inti- 
mately as to the first five, and generally as to the others, so that 
he may be able to present a page or a folio of his own ruling from 
any one of them: 

Daybook-journal (commonly called "the journal"). 

Cashbook. 

Ledger. 

Check book. 

Bank pass bock. 

Sales book. 

Invoice book. 

Bill book. 



274 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

3 Business correspondence and business forms. Business letters 
should be characterized by brevity and clearness. The brevity 
that falls short of complete statement is inexcusable. The usages 
and courtesies prevailing among intelligent business men should be 
duly observed, but beyond these observances the purely business 
letter should contain only the words needed to state the business 
in hand with clearness and certainty. The candidate should be 
acquainted with some method of filing for convenient reference 
business papers, such as letters, statements, accounts sales and 
invoices. He should know the law concerning the making and 
indorsement of commercial paper and clearly understand the mean- 
ing of the different forms of indorsement. He should know the 
law concerning the presentation of commercial paper for payment 
or for acceptance and the action to be taken in case of nonpay- 
ment or nonacceptance. He should be able to make out in correct 
form such papers as: 

Bills of goods and receipts for the payment of money. 

Promissory notes and time drafts. 

Bank checks and sight drafts on individuals or firms. 

Bank drafts on other banks and specially on New York city 
banks. 

Invoices, monthly statements, accounts sales and deposit tickets. 

Trial balances, statements of the condition of a business and 
balance sheets. 

4 Technical terms. Candidates should be able to explain any 
terms pertaining to bookkeeping or to general business that are in 
common use among business men and occur in the ordinary text- 
books on bookkeeping, including such signs and abbreviations as 
are in common use. 

Suggestions. The course outlined is expected to fit the student 
to keep the accounts of an ordinary business by either 'single entry 
or double entry. 

Ample, justification for the large amount of work in computa- 
tions required in connection with elementary bookkeeping is found 
in the very inefficient preparation in arithmetic of the students who 
come up to the high schools. 

Explicit clearness is of great importance in all records made in 
books of original entry, as these records, after certain preliminary 
proofs, are admitted as evidence in the courts. 

The journal is usually a principal book and book of original entry. 
The cashbook, in the pure single entry system, is always an auxil- 
iary book, used for keeping an account of the cash. In double entry 



ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING 275 

it is usually a principal book and a book of original entry, and as such 
is the posting medium for all cash items. Extra money columns 
are often used in the cashbook and sometimes in the journal. The 
ledger is the book of accounts and the index to all business trans- 
acted. The check book is a book of blank check forms with stub 
attachment on which is usually kept the record of all checks drawn 
and of all sums deposited in the bank. The bank pass book 
contains the record, made by the bank, of all moneys deposited by 
a customer, and when written up and balanced shows the con- 
dition of the account on the bank books. The sales book and the 
invoice book are books of original entry, often used as principal 
books. The bill book is an auxiliary book used as a record of time 
paper. In some cases it is used as a principal book. The daybook 
or blotter is sometimes used as a history of the business transacted. 
In such cases it becomes the book of original entry, and the trans- 
actions are posted, through the journal and other books to the 
ledger. The uses of the daybook have been largely superseded by 
the daybook-journal usually called the journal. 

"Interest & discount" should not be used as the name of a 
ledger account. Interest is always interest — whether it be paid 
for the use of money already enjoyed; or as a deduction from the 
face of a note when discounted at a bank; or as a rebate when an 
interest-bearing obligation is paid in advance of maturity. The 
term "discount" is better employed in connection with the purchase 
or sale of commodities where abatements are allowed, as merchan- 
dise discount or trade discount, in which connection the student is 
not likely to be confused by the term. 

ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING 

The test in advanced bookkeeping demands a higher degree of 
technical knowledge than is required for the elementary examination. 
It calls for ability not only to open and keep accurately the accounts 
of any ordinary business, but also to apply to that business such 
devices as tend to save time and avoid errors. The candidate 
should have a clear theoretical knowledge of all the books of account 
in common use, supplemented by a considerable practical knowl- 
edge. Not only the journal but the cashbook, sales book, invoice 
book and sometimes the bill book, will be used as principal books 
of original entry. The journal will not be used for transactions 
that can be conveniently recorded in the other principal books. 

The candidate should have a working knowledge also of such 
subsidiary ledgers as articulate with the main ledger, specially the 



276 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

sales ledger and the purchase ledger, which are used somewhat 
extensively. Special columns in the cashbook and sometimes in 
the journal are valuable aids to the bookkeeper and should be 
understood by the candidate. The voucher system of bookkeeping 
s in use in many lines of business and should not be overlooked. 
The distinctive book in the voucher system is the voucher record. 
Candidates should be able to: 

1 Make in good form (on paper ruled with faint blue lines only) 
all ruling necessary for a page or folio of any ordinary book of 
account or for any statement from the books ; 

2 Explain the difference between single and double entry book- 
keeping and change any set of books from single to double 
entry or from double to single entry, and know the names and 
functions of the accounts used in bookkeeping ; 

3 Take up and continue any practicable set of books, in what- 
ever intelligible form they may have been kept, whether in mer- 
cantile, manufacturing, commission or transportation business, and 
whether the business be carried on by an individual, a firm, or a 
corporation ; 

4 Make such statements from and entries or changes in, the 
books of a business as may be necessary when a partner is admitted 
or when ownership is changed from an individual proprietor or 
partnership to a corporation ; 

5 Make quickly, accurately and in good form bills, accounts 
sales, statements of account, commercial paper, bills of lading 
and business documents in common use, and furnish at short notice 
a statement of the condition of the business. 

6 Explain clearly the terminology of bookkeeping. 
Suggestions. The importance of books of original entry should 

be strongly emphasized, and the teacher should see that every 
entry in such books in made so clear that its meaning is unmis- 
takable. 

In the commercial courses of high schools much of the bookkeep- 
ing instruction can be given advantageously in well graded classes. 
Discussion by the class, subject to moderation and correction by 
the teacher, will tend to fix the important principles firmly in the 
minds of the students. In actual writing of accounts, however, 
individual instruction can not be dispensed with. This is one of the 
strong points of the private business school which the high school 
can not afford to neglect. It enables the bright student to do 
better work and more of it and the dull one will be saved from con- 
tinuing in wrong methods. 



BUSINESS PRACTICE AND TECHNICS 277 

It is of vital importance that the instructor know that each 
student is thoroughly grounded in the work he has taken. This 
can be ascertained by frequent special tests, and no student should 
take up any new work until he can show that he has mastered the 
old. A half day devoted occasionally to a written examination 
and followed by a searching quiz would be of great value to student 
and teacher. This does not apply to bookkeeping alone, but also 
with almost equal force to arithmetic, commercial law, and busi- 
ness practice and technics. 

BUSINESS PRACTICE AND TECHNICS 

The test presupposes a practical general knowledge of the 
manner of conducting business and some familiarity with the 
methods and practice that should prevail in every well regu- 
lated business office. The student will buy and sell merchan- 
dise for cash, on account and in exchange for time paper. 
He will operate as an independent merchant, as a member 
of a firm and eventually as the head of a large wholesale 
establishment. In the course of his practice career he will deal 
with other students, alone and as members of firms, and with 
one or more wholesale establishments. He will have ample capital 
to begin with and will open an account as a customer of the bank, 
through which he will get all necessary knowledge of banking from 
the customer's point of view. He must have a watchful eye on 
his business, must sustain his credit by paying his bills when due, 
must look carefully after his collections, his commercial paper and 
his price list. 

In order to do business it is necessary for the student to know 
something of the usual rules and practice in buying and selling 
breadstuffs, and other farm products; meat products; cotton, wool, 
hides and other raw materials; lumber, iron and other building 
materials; mineral products sold on a commercial scale; fruits and 
groceries; dry goods and all ordinary commodities; stocks and 
bonds. He should have some general knowledge of the prevalent 
customs in the business of transportation on the high seas, the 
great lakes and navigable rivers and by canal or railway; in the 
business of manufacturing and insurance; and should also know 
something of the more important rules and customs governing 
transactions on the stock exchange, the produce exchange and 
similar centers of trade. This knowledge is not expected to be in 
any sense technical, but broadly general. The student should be 
able to keep the accounts of an ordinary business and to make 
out all papers in the regular order of such business. 



278 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Suggestions. In the business practice department the transac- 
tions should be, so far as circumstances will permit, counterparts 
of those occurring in actual business, and they should be con 
ducted with the earnestness and exactness which characterize the 
model man of business. With this spirit prevailing, it will be the 
pride of every student to carry out with precision the most minute 
rules of business custom and etiquette. 

This work is closely correlated with bookkeeping, arithmetic and 
commercial law, and gives rise in great part to the work in those 
branches as well as to much valuable practice in the use of English 
and in penmanship. Every student in the department should 
be required to perform independently and in accordance with the 
principles and models furnished him the whole series of connected 
operations arising out of his commercial dealing. The books, 
stationery and appliances used in the course should be modern, of 
good material and of the most approved form used in business 
houses. Strict accuracy should in all cases be demanded. It is 
assumed that the student who has learned to keep accurately a 
set of books in one reasonably complicated business will readily 
adapt himself to the peculiarities of any other line of business 
which he may be required to take up. Sufficient time should be 
allowed the student in each office or subdivision to gain a knowl- 
edge of details. 

Letters and business papers should be carefully filed by modern 
methods for convenient reference, and all original documents 
should be securely guarded. Special instruction should be given 
along these lines, which also include modern methods of copying 
and duplicating. The student should also be brought occasion- 
ally face to face with emergencies that require prompt action. 

In this department the student will gain familiarity with the 
use of invoices, accounts sales, accounts current, bills, receipts and 
every kind of formal business statement; of express receipts, rail- 
way receipts and more formal bills of lading, of warehouse receipts, 
drafts, checks, promissory notes and all ordinary forms of business 
paper. He should also acquire ability to write a good business 
letter, and he should be taught to combine clearness with brevity. 
Every letter or other document written here should be scrutinized 
by the teacher, and corrections suggested when necessary. Stu- 
dents whose handwriting is deficient in legibility or neatness 
should receive such individual instruction as may be necessary, 
and should be required to devote extra time to practice till the 
deficiency is overcome. A bad writer can not be a successful 
bookkeeper. 



COMMERCIAL LAW 279 

BUSINESS ARITHMETIC 

This test requires a high degree of skill and absolute accuracy 
in business computations, such as weights, measures and 
prices in various kinds of business (including a practical 
knowledge of the metric system). Candidates should be able to 
solve any problem in ordinary business, and have such familiarity 
with principles as will enable them to make use of the simplest and 
most certain. They must have a good working knowledge of 
denominate numbers, aliquot parts, percentage in its numerous 
applications, such as trade discounts, commission and brokerage, 
profit and loss, interest, present worth, bank discount and partial 
payments. They should be acquainted with the principles of 
ratio and proportion and be able to apply them in the solution of 
problems. They should be able to solve problems in insurance, 
exchange, equation of accounts, partnership settlements, opera- 
tions of incorporated companies, stocks and bonds, taxes, duties, 
banking, storage and general average. 

Suggestions. In the Regents examinations in business arith- 
metic no credit will be given to any answer that is erroneous as to 
computation. If the candidate proceeds on a wrong principle 
(as for example, computing interest on a basis of 360 days to the 
year when required to compute on the basis of 365 days; or making 
a mistake in some table of denominate numbers) yet makes no 
error in computation, he will be allowed half credit on his answer. 

The justification for this requirement is that inaccurate com- 
putation is of no value in the countingroom or elsewhere. 

Rapid calculation in addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
cancelation, interest and discount should be a daily exercise. 

Work in bill making, partnership settlements and the like should 
appear as far as possible in the form of statements, on paper ruled 
by the student. Such work tends to increase largely the student's 
efficiency in the knowledge and practice of accounts. 

The students should not be allowed to tie themselves down to 
rules. Select business problems and lefrthem be solved by business 
methods, founded on analysis and reason. The arithmetic of 
business should be emphatically the arithmetic of common sense. 

Frequent tests should be given. 

COMMERCIAL LAW 

'The test in commercial law demands a thorough knowledge "of 
those phases of the law that are of constant application in business 
life, including the drawing of contracts and other business docu- 



280 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

ments. Candidates should have an exact knowledge of the laws 
relating to negotiable paper and other contracts in common use. 
They should have a fair practical knowledge of the laws relating 
to interest and usury, sales of personal property, partnership, 
agency, liens, bailment, warranty, guaranty, insurance, attachment, 
garnishment, corporations, common carriers, stoppage in transit, 
real estate, banking, taxes and duties. Candidates should be 
familiar with the provisions of the statute of limitations and with 
the 4th and 17th sections of the statute of frauds and New York 
legislation thereon. They should have a general knowledge of the 
interstate commerce law and the national bankruptcy law and be 
able to fill out or draw up in concise legal form any contract or 
agreement, check, note, bill of exchange, bill of sale, power of at- 
torney, bill of lading, deed, mortgage, lease, notice of protest, or 
other document relating to the foregoing subjects. 

Suggestions. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. The pur- 
pose of this course is to protect the student from the anxieties 
and losses of lawsuits, by acquainting him with some of the under- 
lying principles of the law, and with the drawing of contracts and 
other business papers in simplest legal form and with the least 
verbiage consistent With clearness. It is not expected that the 
student will draw any but the simplest papers from memory; but 
knowing all the particulars of a contract he should be able to draw 
it concisely and legally. He should not be required to write from 
memory any of the complicated printed forms, but simply to fill 
in what needed to be written. 

The teacher of commercial law need not be a practitioner in the 
courts. He need not even be a lawyer, but he should be one who 
knows the law. He may lecture on the law, but he should not 
do too much of it. The class should have a chance to do much of 
the talking, subject to correction when necessary. The chief 
object is to fix permanently in the minds of students the un deviat- 
ing principles of the law and this can usually be done most effect- 
ively by an analysis of cases, real or hypothetical. Judicious dis- 
cussion by the class, within proper limits, should always be allowed 
when time permits. Some reliable textbook should be in the 
hands of the students for careful study. 

It is desirable that the teacher of bookkeeping and business 
practice have a working knowledge of commercial law, as correla- 
tion of these studies will be of great value. When the class in book- 
keeping is called to draw its first check, promissory note or draft, 
it should be instructed in the provisions of law relating to negoti- 



HISTORY OF COMMERCE 28 1 

able paper: the duties of the drawer or maker for the protection 
of himself and others into whose hands the paper may rightfully 
come; the liability incurred by the indorser and how it may be 
limited or otherwise modified; the duties and obligations of the 
acceptor; the precautions to be exercised on the part of the payee 
and the payer. 1 All of these will be subjects of live interest to the 
student who has just drawn his first promissory note or check. 
When as a young merchant in business practice he signs a lease 
for his place of business, the important law points bearing on 
leasehold should be made clear to him, and so also of the fire insur- 
ance policy on his goods. If possible, the document or matter 
under discussion should be before the class, either written on the 
blackboard or in print or writing in the hands of every member; 
and the subject should not be dropped until every student is able 
to draw the document, and state the important points of law which 
bear on it. Members of the class should be allowed all the latitude 
for discussion consistent with good discipline and necessary time 
limits and every member should be encouraged to participate. 
Such discussion promotes confidence and clearness in expression 
of ideas. 

HISTORY OF COMMERCE 

History should connect the present with the past. As commer- 
cial geography portrays the commerce of today, so the history of 
commerce should depict in broad lines the commerce of past ages. 
In preparation for the test the candidate should acquire a general 
knowledge as to the origin and early development of commerce, 
should be able to trace its influence on the world's civilization and 
should become acquainted in a broad, general way with the great 
discoveries, public works, inventions, legislative enactments and 
other important influences by which the progress of commerce has 
been affected. A more intimate acquaintance with the com- 
mercial history of our own country will be required. 

The student should reach a clear understanding of the begin- 
nings of commerce as the inevitable outcome of man's needs and 
desires. In tracing its earlier history he should note the more 
striking incidents with which its development has been accom- 
panied. This naturally demands some knowledge of the peoples 
and of the countries or cities that in earlier times have been noted 
for commercial enterprise: Egyptians, Hebrews, Ishmaelites 

!The negotiable instruments law, recently passed by New York and some other states, 
should be consulted as to commercial paper. 



282 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

(Arabs), Phenicians, Greeks; Carthage, Rome, Palmyra, Massalia 
(Marseilles), Athens, Corinth, Magna Grecia, Byzantium; slavery 
in Greece. 

Phenicia: commercial policy; commanding position; inland, 
river and maritime trade; carrier for all employers; inland trade 
with Hebrews and Egyptians; ship builders and navigators ; trade 
on the high seas; close relations with Solomon; Si don and Tyre; 
breadstuffs imported; Carthage; other colonies; early currency. 

Egypt: agriculture and manufactures; importers of hides, furs, 
fine woods, etc., and of slaves; the Nile river. 

Greece: a seafaring people; taught by the Phenicians; fruits, 
breadstuffs and raw materials; extensive colonization; nourishing 
trade between colonies and mother cities; slavery. Athens in the 
time of Pericles. Commercial and economic effects of the con- 
quests of Alexander. Importance of Rhodes; fairs and markets 
in Greece. 

Roman commerce and industries: Romans not a commercial 
people; imports of Rome; exports; balance of trade, how adjusted; 
trade gilds; decline in agriculture; slavery; encouragement of in- 
dolence; Roman roads and posts; commercial tribunals; Roman 
currency; decay and fall of Rome. 

Five centuries of uncertainty and unrest: Theodocian code; 
ecclesiastical law. 

The Eastern Empire: Justinian (A. D. 527-65); conquests in 
Italy, Africa and Spain; Amalfi; Pisa; silk culture in the west. 

Mohammedan empire (622-732): marvelous growth; trade and 
manufactures; character of workmanship; splendid cities; Arab 
civilization in Spain; permanent contributions to the world's 
industries. 

Karl the Great (771-814): education, agriculture and commerce 
and the keeping of accounts; a semimilitary system; relations with 
distant rulers ; stimulates the growth of towns ; a commercial treaty 
with the king of Mercia ; protection to traders in the realm of Karl. 

Feudalism: its essential feature; causes of its institution and 
growth; its primary effects on the classes of persons involved; 
how it affected the growth of towns; two contrary influences on 
trade. 

Merchant gilds and craft gilds : reasons . for their founding ; 
object of the merchant gilds; of the craft gilds; influence of mer- 
chant gilds in the towns: how members of craft gilds became 
freemen. 



HISTORY OF COMMERCE 283 

The crusades: general influence on trade; how they affected the 
commerce of the Italian city republics; special commercial conces- 
sions; how England was benefited. The career of Venice; her 
consular system. Florence as a financial center and manufactur- 
ing city ; chief causes of the decline of Italian cities. 

Leagues against pirates and robbers. The Hanseatic League 
(circa 1 169): object; Hamburg and Lubeck; rapid growth of the 
league; growth in power and increase in commerce; monopoly; 
factories (agencies); the "London Steelyard;" the factories at 
Novgorod and Bruges; eminent services of the league. 

Fairs and markets: their function in commerce; surviving fairs. 

Early English commerce: trade in tin with the Phenicians; a 
trade with Gaul in other products. King Alfred founds a navy. 
Wool the most important commodity through the Middle Ages: 
exported; manufactured; the main source of revenue. Influence 
of foreign immigration on the woolen industry. The Jews in 
England; Black Death (1348-50) carries off one third to one half 
of the population ; slow but steady breaking up of manorial system. 

The Netherlands in the Middle Ages: Ghent; Antwerp. 

German expansion: colonization. 

The travels of Marco Polo. 

Medieval currency, banking and credit; general influence of 
medieval commerce on the development of civilization. 

Invention of gunpowder, the mariner's compass, the astrolabe 
and the art of printing; a new route to India; discovery of 
America; circumnavigation of the earth; economic effects of the 
Protestant Reformation; the Peasants War. 

Commerce under the Tudors. Henry 7 builds ships and 
extends commerce. Wool and other exports carried in English 
ships to most of the maritime countries of Europe; commercial 
treaties. Henry 8. Chief economic event; influence on agri- 
culture; effects on the woolen industry ; advance in prices. 

The Portuguese establishment in India, how won and how lost. 
Rise of the Dutch Republic; commercial expansion; leading 
bankers; the Dutch in America; the French and English in India. 

Spanish ascendancy in the west. Opportunity for commercial 
supremacy ; leading states united by marriage ; victory over the 
Moors by capture of Granada; monopoly of a new world; greatest 
world power ; natives enslaved to work in mines ; Spanish treachery ; 
beginning of African slave trade in the New World ; colonial policy 
and its results. 



284 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Early navigation laws of England (1381-1600); England in the 
reign of Elizabeth; slave trade; opening of trade with Moscow; 
grants by James 1 of lands in America (1606); early shipbuilding 
industry in American colonies; first restriction of American colo- 
nial commerce (161 9) ; the European system of colonization ; coloni- 
zation of America; Charles 1 attempts a monopoly of American 
commerce (1628-39); the sole market theory; slavery in Europe 
and America; export and import trade of the American colonies 
confined to British or colonial ships (1650); enactment that the 
"enumerated articles" should not be exported direct to foreign 
countries without being first brought to England and reshipped by 
English merchants (1660); smuggling by colonists ; no foreign com- 
modity allowed to be sent to the colonies unless actually laden at 
an English port and carried by an English ship (1663); colonists 
forbidden to carry on manufacturing; the commercial policy of 
Colbert (1664); the treaty of Utrecht (1713). 

The Seven Years War (known in America as the French and Indian 
War, 1756-63). A struggle for a continent; Pitt's supreme effort 
in the interest of colonial, maritime and commercial supremacy 
for the English people. 

Economic causes of the American revolution. Woolen manufac- 
tures forbidden (17 19); iron manufactures forbidden (1750); hats 
not allowed to be sent from one colony to another ; colonies encour- 
aged to produce raw materials for English manufacturers; con- 
traband trade with French and Spanish settlements; writs of 
assistance; stamp tax (1765); Pitt's protest against taxation with- 
out representation; colonists form associations for buying only 
their own manufactures; England imposes duties on tea, glass, 
paints and pasteboard (1767); "Boston tea party" (1773); port of 
Boston closed and charter of Massachusetts annulled; all trade with 
the colonies forbidden (1775); Continental Congress; articles of 
confederation; France helps the colonies and forms an alliance 
with them ; Spain joins France against England. Coalition against 
the "right of search." 

Commerce and industries during the Revolution: free trade; 
all goods accepted except English; establishment of iron manu- 
factures by the Congress; wool manufactures; reciprocity with 
France; the Continental Congress declares for free trade (1778); 
equipment for the Continental army; a factory started 
(1790) ; the cotton gin; a flood of English goods follows the treaty 
of peace ; English goods cheaper in New York than in London ; 
paper money; manufacturing establishments closed; workmen 
beggared. 



HISTORY OF COMMERCE 285 

Local protection. Each state reserves the right to regulate its 
own commerce ; intolerable clashing of state tariffs leads to the for- 
mation of the federal Constitution ; a single system of commercial 
policy adopted; tariff of 1789; import duties 5 to 10%; 30 to 50% 
on tonnage of foreign vessels. 

Beginning of modern cotton manufacture in the United States 
(1790) ; shipbuilding; causes of the backwardness of manufactures; 
first application of steam in the United States (1800) ; conditions of 
agriculture, commerce and manufactures (1808) ; status of Ameri- 
can shipping (1795) ; increase in rate of duties (1789-1808) ; tariffs 
to 1807 founded on fiscal needs; embargo act (1807); noninter- 
course act; effects of these acts on commerce, on American shipping 
and on manufactures. 

War of 18 1 2, causes, effects; protective tariff (18 16), why 
imposed; effects. The "reciprocal liberty of commerce" act (18 15). 

The English industrial revolution; five great inventions and their 
radical influence on the industries and commerce of England; 
temporary suffering of working classes and small farmers; the 
mining industries. 

The French Revolution and continental war. Napoleon's 
continental system; broken by Russia. Decay of the Nether- 
lands; revival of Holland; Belgian development; Switzerland; 
Russia's growth, commercial policy, railways; revival of Italian 
trade; commercial decay of Spain. A leaning toward protection. 

Transportation in the United States. Stage coach, turnpike, 
saddle horse and ox team; river navigation; steamboats (1807); 
flatboats on the Ohio and Mississippi; great reduction in freight 
rates; Cumberland road; many canals projected; the Erie canal; 
navigation on the great lakes; first railroad begun (1828); first 
railroad in New York (about 1832) ; total railway mileage in 1835, 
760; in 1850, 8571 miles. The Savannah, an American sailing 
vessel having auxiliary steam power, crosses the Atlantic; first 
regular line of steamers between United States and Europe (1838). 

Morse telegraph, invented 1835, fairly established in the early 
"forties"; first and second ocean telegraph cable (1858-66); com- 
mercial treaties ; reciprocity treaties. 

England adopts free trade and repeals the corn laws; extraor- 
dinary commercial and industrial progress; colonial trade; in- 
fluence in Africa; discovery of gold in California and Australia 
(1848-49); the Zollverein in Germany. Pan-American congress. 



286 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Population of the United States increased by immigration; 
causes and inducements. Increased agricultural production and 
increased demand for goods ; financial crises and panics, causes and 
results. 

The American Civil War, economic causes and results; effects 
on other countries ; cost, in money, to United States. 

The Suez canal: its importance; its chief beneficiaries. The 
American Isthmian canal. Other important canals. 

Transcontinental railways; the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion. 

The Franco-Prussian War and its results. Trade and industry 
of Germany and France since the war. 

Detached territory and colonies of the United States. 

The fisheries of the United States, value of the catch; approxi- 
mate capital invested in manufacturing industries. 

The renaissance of the Southern States; trade of the United 
States with foreign nations now includes exports of American 
silks, woolens and cottons to Europe; domestic commerce of the 
United States; American shipping; commercial and economic 
effects of Spanish-American War. 

Prevailing trade conditions and policies of European and other 
foreign countries. 

Suggestions. The history of commerce naturally links itself 
with commercial geography and the same general methods are 
applicable to both studies. Maps should be studied to identify 
localities and outline maps should be used as tests. It is recom- 
mended for both studies that topics be assigned at least once a 
week to individual members of the class, for investigation and writ- 
ten report to the class. The reports should be discussed in class 
and each member allowed to question the author on any matter 
not fully understood. The teacher should observe the discussion 
and see that no erroneous conclusions are reached. 1 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 

The test in commercial geography presupposes some general 
knowledge of mathematical, physical and political geography. 
Candidates should be able to give in a general way the location 
and physical features, approximate size and population, form of 
government and prevailing language of the important commercial 

1 Fot many valuable ideas on the study of history, see article, " History," by Dr 
C. A. Herrick, Director School of Commerce, Philadelphia Central High School, in Com- 
mercial Education in High Schools, University of the State of New York, College Department, 
bulletin 23, June 1904, 20c. 



COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 287 

countries of the world, and should have a' knowledge'of the relative 
commercial activities of those countries and of the leading products 
(specially exports and imports), routes of travel and transporta- 
tion, chief seaports and ocean or other routes by which these are 
connected with other trading ports of the world. 

Physical features. Land. Continents; islands, continental and 
oceanic; coast forms, cape, promontory, peninsula, isthmus; 
relief forms, mountains and mountain systems, plain, plateau, 
basin, desert. 

Water. Ocean, sea, gulf or bay, strait, sound, lake, river; cir- 
culation, including waves, tides, ocean currents. 

Atmosphere. Constant winds, including trade winds, antitrade 
winds, monsoons. Inconstant winds, including land and sea 
breezes, cyclone or tornado, water spout. Moisture: grains to 
cubic foot of air; dew point; average annual rainfall. 

Climate. As determined by location, altitude, winds, ocean 
currents, high mountain ranges. 

Weather bureau. Predictions and signals. 

Political. The political divisions of each continent or grand 
division, their capitals, forms of government, population and 
language. 

Commercial. A study of countries and peoples as to commercial 
importance and efficiency, chief industries, trade with other coun- 
tries (specially the United States), leading commodities, value of 
exports and imports, internal communications, including routes 
of travel and transportation, chief commercial cities and seaports 
and the ocean routes and ship canals by which they are connected 
witli the trading ports of the world. A fair knowledge of these 
matters and of the general character of the people will be required 
in the case of all countries studied. 

The State of New York. Physical features of the region in which 
the candidate resides; climate and soil; description of a familiar 
industry; industries peculiar to the State; leading industries; 
special industries in certain cities; industries that are declining; 
new industries; important manufactures; early methods of travel 
and carriage; rivers, canals and railways; pipe lines; the open door 
to the great West. 

United States. Richness and variety of raw materials ; exports ; 
imports; recent exports of silks and woolens to France, hosiery to 
Germany, cottons to Manchester and tin plates and bars to Wales. 
England is importing Lake Superior iron. 



288 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Manufactures. New York State. Clothing; iron products; 
leather and its products; refined sugar, chemicals, steam engines 
and heavy machinery, agricultural machinery and implements, 
sewing machines, bicycles, wagons, typewriters, and other fine 
machinery and tools, printing presses and type, paper and books, 
electric machinery and supplies, pianos, shipbuilding, soap and 
candles, clay products, tin and copper goods, malt liquors, tobacco 
and cigars, furniture, knit goods, hats and caps, gloves. 

Pennsylvania. Importance in iron and steel working, woolen 
and carpet industries. 

Massachusetts. Leading in cotton and woolen mills, boots and 
shoes. 

Leading manufactures in other states. Development of manu- 
facturing in the Southern States. 

Internal communications. Mississippi river system, great lakes, 
Erie canal, Hudson river, Sault Sainte Marie canal, Welland canal, 
St Lawrence river; transcontinental railway systems and principal 
connections ; railway lines running north and south ; trunk railways 
of New England; trunk railways in New York; postal and tele- 
graph facilities; express companies. 

Seaport cities and towns. The six leading seaport cities, their 
position, population and influence; five cities on the New England 
coast, one each on the coast of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, 
Florida, Alabama and Texas, and four on the Pacific coast, with 
the trade for which each is noted; seven important city ports on 
the great lakes, 10 river ports of the Mississippi system; 10 inland 
manufacturing or commercial cities of New York; 10 inland manu- 
facturing cities or towns of New England, three of New Jersey, 
five of Pennsylvania, one of Delaware and one each of Virginia, 
West Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, Indiana, Michigan 
and Wisconsin; six important mining cities and towns in the 
United States; the largest cattle market town; the chief coal oil 
town; four noted inland cities and towns near the pacific coast. 

Detached territory. Alaska. Furs, fisheries, forests, gold. 

Hawaii. Leading product, chief city, character of people, 
ocean communications. 

Puerto Rico. Two leading products, chief seaport, character 
of people. 

Philippine Islands. Commercial importance; hemp, sugar, 
tobacco, coffee, rice; chief port; character of people and progress 
of civilization; ocean communication. 



COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 289 

Ocean communications. Steamer routes: New York to Queens- 
town and Liverpool; New York to Hamburg; New York to South- 
ampton and London; New York to the Mediterranean; New York 
to Cape Town and Cape Town to Adelaide, etc.; New York coast- 
wise around Cape Horn to San Francisco; New Orleans to Liver- 
pool; New York to the Bermudas; New York to Havana; San Fran- 
cisco to Yokohama; San Francisco to Honolulu; Honolulu to 
Feejee Islands and Auckland. The Suez canal; other ship canals. 
Ocean cables. Postal facilities. 

Other countries hereinafter mentioned should be studied along 
similar lines to those laid down for the United States, but with less 
detail and in what is practically the order of the importance of their 
trade with the United States. 

Great Britain and her colonies 

Commercial importance. Values of exports and imports, a 
financial center, distributor of the world's products, merchant 
marine, trade with the United States, free trade. 

England and Wales; Scotland; Canada and Newfoundland; 
Ireland; British India, Ceylon, Hong Kong, The Straits Settlements 
and Aden, Australian colonies, British West Indies (Bahamas, 
Windward group, Trinidad, Bermudas, Jamaica and Turks island). 
Balize (British Honduras). British South American colonies 
(British Guiana). British possessions or dependencies in Africa 
(Cape Colony, Mauritius, Sierra Leone, -Lower Egypt, Rhodesia. 

Other countries 

German Empire, France, Brazil, Belgium, Spain and Portugal, 
Italy. Holland (the Netherlands) and colonial possessions: Dutch 
East Indies, including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Moluccas, 
western half of New Guinea. Mexico, Japan, China, Russia and 
Siberia, Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, Turkey (including the Le- 
vant), Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Greece, Central American 
states, Venezuela, Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Uruguay, Ecuador, 
Peru, Bolivia, Hayti and San Domingo. 

While in the foregoing list of countries, colonies and dependen- 
cies other than our own, only the names have been mentioned, it is 
expected that each of these will be given as much study as time will 
permit. 

Suggestions. In the study of commercial geography it seems 
desirable to proceed from the known to the unknown or faintly 



29O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

apprehended — from the home of the student and its environment, 
in widening circles, till the study embraces first the state, then the 
Union and finally the commercial world. 

As an introduction to this study it would be helpful to the student 
to have an intimate knowledge of some of the more common raw 
materials of commerce and to be able to trace them through the 
various processes of preparation to the finished product. Some of 
the commercial teachers in the high schools of our State have already 
begun to make collections of working specimens to be handled by 
the students and have also begun to collect specimens and products 
for permanent commercial museums. The principal of one of the 
largest commercial schools in the State writes: "The subject of raw 
materials and commercial products is the most interesting and 
should be the most important part of commercial geography . . . 
I find that our pupils get more information from their 
trips to the docks and to the factories and from their 
study of commercial products (which they have already 
collected in such abundance as to stock the museum in our 
new building) than they do from the textbook or from their col- 
lateral reading; so that the study of raw materials and commer- 
cial products is the center of our study of commercial geography." 

An able teacher in the English High School, Boston, says: 
"The field of the science is the study of those commercial products 
that man. needs for his existence, and the various forms of industry 
and labor by which men produce those commodities and earn their 
living." 1 

Maps will prove very valuable in the study of commercial geogra- 
phy — wall maps, for fixing localities, followed by outline maps as 
tests. As our Boston - teacher has well said: "A student who 
can indicate on an outline map the areas of production, trade routes, 
etc. , knows his lesson and has the picture clear in his mind." In this 
connection lantern slides may be made of great value. .The 
director of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, says, in an article 
on "Some of the Equipment necessary for Commercial Schools" 2 : 
"Where the actual articles of commerce can not be secured they can 
still be adequately presented by means of the lantern slide; and 
this has no superior, indeed no equal as a means of protraying 
methods of packing, of shipping, of transportation generally and of 
docking and wharf facilities in the various parts of the world." 

1 See Commercial Education in High Schools, p. 55 et seq. College Department bulletin 23 

2 See Commercial Education in High Schools, p.101 et seq. 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE 291 

It is unnecessary to enlarge on the value of a good working library 
in connection with this study. In it should be found all the books 
on commercial geography. There are not many of them yet, but 
the list is growing. Reference books, government publications, 
Philadelphia Commercial Museum publications, trade journals 
and reviews are valuable aids. See Dr Herrick's list in Geography 
of Commerce, Trotter, p. xx-xxiv. 

Informal talks by business men and manufacturers would be of 
great interest to commercial students and would impress them 
strongly with the realities of business life. 

Among the more valuable recent publications of the State De- 
partment at Washington are Commerce and Finance of the United 
States, for November 1904; Review of the World's Commerce, for 
1901 ; The Act to Regulate Commerce, as amended 1887-1903 ; Dingley 
Tariff Bill; U. S. Bankruptcy Law of i8q8, as amended 1903; and 
Special Consular Reports, particularly volume 4 (1891) Port Regu- 
lations in Foreign Countries; volume 10 (1894) Extension of Mar- 
kets for American Flour; volume 12 (1895) Highways of Commerce 
(New Edition, 1899).; volume 13 (1896-97) Money and Prices in 
Foreign Countries; volume 16 (1899) Tariffs of Foreign Countries; 
volume 32 (1904) Foreign Markets for American Fruits; volume 30 
(1904) Emigration to the United States; volume 28 (1904) Com- 
mercial Travelers in Foreign Countries. A few of these special 
reports are out of print and can not be furnished by the department. 

BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE 

This test, which is intended specially for students in business 
and stenographers work, consists mainly of practical exercises in 
English composition which are to be rated according to their 
character, not only as to form, spelling, punctuation, capitalization 
and general neatness, but also in the more essential matters of 
exact use of words, sentence structure, clearness, logical sequence 
of ideas and paragraphing. The questions set will include letter 
writing on varied business topics, essays on various requirements 
of technical business education, correction of faulty composition, 
also drawing up or filling out, from statement or memoranda, 
business documents such as contracts or articles of agreement, bills 
of sale and power of attorney. Candidates may also be required 
to make reports and abstracts, to condense long articles (preserv- 
ing all important features), to write and answer advertisements 
and to compose short essays on business topics. No questions in 
technical grammar will be asked. 



292 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Suggestions. Questions 1-3 are required and must be answered 
in order to obtain credit. These refer to the essays on require- 
ments of business education and are intended to show whether 
or not the candidate has the technical knowledge that would war- 
rant him in taking this examination. These questions are given 
alternatively, so that they may be answered from the point of 
view of the bookkeeper or of the stenographer and typewriter 
The necessary data for answering the other questions will be found 
in the paper set for advanced bookkeeping. 1 

BUSINESS WRITING 

The requirements for this test are speed, legibility, accuracy, 
adaptability and neatness. There will be a speed test of 225 
words to be written from unfamiliar printed matter in 15 minutes, 
and 600 figures to be written in 10 minutes. The remainder of the 
test will consist of the writing of business papers and letters from 
printed copy. Credits for the first six questions depend on speed, 
legibility, accuracy and neatness; for the others on legibility, ac- 
curacy, adaptability and neatness, without reference to speed. All 
answers must be written with pen and ink. 

Suggestions. While this test is given mainly for penmanship it 
has a further educational value in presenting correct business 
papers and model letters. By "adaptability" is meant the ability 
to make the writing accommodate itself to the space in which it 
is to be written; and this applies not only to the size of the letters, 
but to the distinctness with which they stand out for important 
words or phrases. Business writing should be so legible that any 
isolated word could be read with ease. Figures must be neat, 
correct in form and properly aligned. 

STENOGRAPHY 

There are two tests as follows: 

First test. Ability to write accurately in shorthand 500 words 
in 10 minutes and to transcribe the notes in 45 minutes, either in 
longhand with pen and ink or on the typewriter. 

Second test. Ability to write accurately in shorthand 500 words 
in five minutes and to transcribe the notes in 45 minutes, either 
in longhand with pen and ink or on the typewriter. Candidates 
for state business credentials must obtain at least 90% in this test. 

x For suggestions regarding business letters, see Commercial Education in High Schools, 
p. 21—23, College Department bulletin 23, June 1904. 



TYPEWRITING 293 

Papers will be rated in proportion to the accuracy shown in 
taking down the letters or selections, in transcribing the notes 
and in spelling, use of capitals, punctuation and paragraphing. 

Each test is allowed two credits, but candidates who complete 
the second test will also receive credit for the first test. 

The examination must not exceed three hours. The candidates 
may be divided into groups for convenience in dictation, but the 
time limits for dictation and for transcription must be strictly 
observed. 

The shorthand notes and the transcript are to be promptly 
collected at the end of the period assigned for transcription. 

Suggestions. The matter for dictation will comprise usually, 
for the first test, three business letters containing about 250 words 
and a selection of about the same length. The second test will 
include two or three short letters and a selection of about 300 
words. As much attention should be given to the reading as to 
the writing of the shorthand. The student should be required to 
read fluently, intelligently and with correct expression. 

TYPEWRITING 

The test requires the candidate to write on a typewriter ordi- 
nary matter at the rate of 50 words a minute for three minutes, 
and to copy unfamiliar printed matter at the rate of 35 words a 
minute for three minutes. Candidates are further required to 
have a general knowledge of such work as may rightfully devolve 
on an amanuensis in a business office, such as copying letters (press, 
roller copier or carbon), manifolding (carbon, mimeograph, neostyle 
etc.), filing letters, telegrams and other business papers; to make 
out correctly such common business papers as bills, receipts, checks, 
promissory notes and drafts; but this part of the test is much less 
comprehensive than that required in connection with business 
practice. Candidates should be able to compose routine business 
letters, and to correct examples of bad composition. They may 
also be required to send in carbon duplicates of portions of their 
examination work. 

Suggestions. Care should be exercised in selecting matter for 
copying or for dictation. No matter should be used simply be- 
cause it contains words that can be printed on the typewriter or 
taken in shorthand. The selection should have a broader purpose. 
Business letters intended for dictation should be closely scrutinized 
and, when necessary, corrected; and, so far as possible, in all other 



294 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

matter chosen for transcription or dictation the teacher should 
assure himself that it is of a character tending to add to the student's 
general knowledge and to broaden his mind while it affords him 
required practice. 

It is expected that copying, filing, mimeograph and other work 
required by the syllabus will be actually done in the school, and 
described from personal experience. 



GROUP 6 



ACADEMIC DRAWING AND ADVANCED DRAWING 

T N preparing this syllabus in drawing 
and outlining a general plan for the 
examinations which are to be a test 
of the work done in these subjects, 
an effort has been made to meet 
the needs of those schools which 
are not provided with trained art 
teachers, as well as of those that 
arc under such supervision. 

The course in drawing should be 
continuous throughout the four 
academic years and should pro- 
vide adequate instruction for 228 
periods. The first examination 
should come at the end of the 
second year and the final test in 
advanced drawing should be made 
at the end of the high school course. 
" Drawing " will be allowed three 
counts and " advanced drawing " 
three counts. The work is to be 
done on drawing paper 8 x 10 
inches, and all drawings are to be 
made suitable in size to fill the 
sheet. Place but two drawings on 
a page. The credits allowed each answer depend on conception, 
knowledge of principles, and execution. Power of expression should 
increase as the work progresses, and at the close of the course a 
high degree of excellence in execution will be expected. 

Drawings may be in pencil, charcoal, crayon, pen and ink, or 
water colors as the candidates prefer. With the brush as a medium, 
the point may be used at times for outline drawing. A simple 
effect is produced by the brush in the silhouette. A brush drawing 
may be done in flat tones, producing effects similar to those observed 
in posters, or the brush may be used to produce more detailed work. 
The pen is a more difficult medium than the pencil. Ordinary ink 




296 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



may be used, though india ink is better. Instruction and practice 
should be given throughout the course in the use of the various 
mediums. 

Drawing is primarily a means of expression. Satisfactory results 
can not be expected if the practice in drawing is confined to the 

drawing class. Like writing, it 
should be applied generally in 
school work, and abundant oppor- 
tunity may be found in almost every 
subject. Scenes described in the 
reading lessons may be illustrated, 
cuts found in the textbooks may be 
reproduced, specimens and appa- 
ratus studied in the science classes 
may be drawn, the figures referred 
to in mathematics may be con- 
structed, etc. The principles of 
arrangement, composition, and de- 
sign should be applied to all work, 
and attention given to arrangement 
and to the placing of sketches 
and written matter in 
notebooks. . Practice 
in drawing out of 
school hours should 
also be encouraged. 
A home sketchbook 
will afford recreation 
while at the same 
time it will lead the 
pupil to observe close- 
ly and record graphi- 
cally what he sees. 
While the quality of line and finish of the picture depends on skill 
in execution, it must not be assumed that drawing is wholly a matter 
of hand training. Quality of line and finish is to drawing what 
penmanship is to composition. Of great importance are thought, 
conception, knowledge and a desire to express, whether it be in 
line, light and shade, or color. The ability to express by drawings 
depends in a large measure on the development of the imagination, 
the power of carrying in the mind a correct and vivid picture of 
the thing to be represented. The study of the object is essential, 




ACADEMIC DRAWING 



297 



but the student should also learn to draw without having it before 
him. This is specially true in industrial drawing, in which the 
object represented is made from the drawing, not the drawing 
from the object. In this work the order of development is, first 
the mental picture, then the drawing, then the construction of the 
object from the drawing. 
As to aim, the work in drawing should embrace: 

1 Pictorial drawing or perspective, showing the appearances of 
objects. 

2 Decorative drawing including design and ornamentation. 

3 Constructive drawing, consisting of geometric constructions, 
projections, sections, developed surfaces, and working drawings, 
showing the facts of the object. 

As to method of execution, the drawings required will be: 

1 Free-hand drawings, in which the pencil, charcoal or brush is 
guided by the eye and hand alone. 

2 Instrumental drawings, in which the pencil is accurately guided 
by mechanical means. 

Attention of teachers and candidates is directed to the following 
suggestions and outline of requirements. 

ACADEMIC DRAWING 

1 Pictorial drawing. Free- 
hand. This division includes 
objects and nature drawing, 
perspective, light and shade, 
and illustration. 

This study develops the 
power of observation, trains 
the eye to see form, tone and 
color, cultivates the imagina- 
tion, and gives power of ex- 
pression which is of great 
value in nearly all lines of work. Pupils 
should have much practice in free-hand 
drawing and use it in their daily work. 
They should first have practice in drawing 
by proportion, to judge by eye the relative 
size of one object compared with another 
or part of an object compared with the 
whole. They should know how to test their 
work by use of the pencil held at arm's 




2Q8 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPA' ffMENT 



length and at right angles to the line of vision, though the 
eye should be the final test. It is not necessary to know how 
to draw an object in perspective by scientific methods in order 
to draw from objects. The principal aim is to train the eye 
to see perspective effects, and to draw freely and effectively. 
(Remember that the mere doing a thing is not so important as 
the knowing how to do it.) The training that comes through 
doing is the object sought. It is better to observe and study phe- 
nomena than to adjust observations to fixed rules. Learn to draw 
by drawing. Teach the principles of perspective through the study 
and drawing of models, objects, doors swung part way open, 
interiors of rooms, furniture, buildings and scenes from nature. 

In this work the quality of line depends on the character of 
the object represented and tht ^nditions under which it is seen. 
If it is near the observer and has sharp, well defined edges, the 
lines should be well defined. If it has less sharply defined edges 
or if it is remote from the observer or in shadow, its outlines 




should be represented by soft, broad or broken lines. Contours 
of objects with smooth, even surfaces are indicated by even lines; 
irregular and rough surfaces by broader, softer or broken lines ; 
but if the lines are freely drawn and express the appearance of the 
object, their width and character are of secondary importance. 

In pictorial work expression by mass and light and shade may be 
required. In light and shade drawings the mass of shade should 



■ 





ACADEMIC DRAWING 



299 



define as nearly as possible the objects represented, and the values, 
that is, the relation of one tone to another, should be carefully con- 
sidered. Backgrounds should be inconspicuous. 

The terms light and dark and light and shade are not synonymous. 
Light and dark relates to tone values in a picture without regard to 
light, shade and shadow. It also refers to color values in objects; 
a blue object will be represented by a darker tone than a yellow 
object in the same light. Mass drawing is the representation of 
objects by masses of varying tone or color without special reference 
to outline. This kind of drawing should be practised both in tone 
and color. 

Light and shade refers to the effect that light has on an object. 
In drawing objects in light and shade care should be taken to 
see that the light comes from only one direction on the same 
group. The best results are obtained when the light comes obliquely 
from the side. Study the effects of objects lighted from the side, 
from behind, and from in front. Also the effects produced by 




300 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 





direct light, as sunlight, or 
by a single lamplight, and 
those produced by diffused 
light as on a cloudy day, or 
through a broad opening or 
several windows. Use pen- 
cil, charcoal and brush. 

For large, quick and 
effective work, as well as 
that requiring finish, there 
is no better medium than 
charcoal. The ease with 
which it is applied and 
removed, and its wide range 
of possibilities, make it a 
valuable medium for the 
artist. Hard charcoal is 
used for point work where 
fine finish and detail are re- 
quired, and soft charcoal for 
large masses and tone work. 
It is well to have both kinds. 
Soft charcoal usually comes 
in small round sticks, and 
the hard in small split sticks. 
For school work the hard is 
HE better, some of it will be soft 
enough. Almost any paper 
with a rough surface will 
@BHBSHh WMmmBS&m&EBm do, but charcoal paper is 

better. The work may be 
left untouched or rubbed with the finger or stump. 

For tone work use a stick of soft charcoal, and holding it at a 
slight angle with the paper so it will make a broad line, cover 
the surface completely over. Rub down with a piece of cheese-cloth 
or soft rag to any desired tone. With chamois skin and kneaded 
rubber or art gum wipe out the light parts. Darker portions may 
be put in with charcoal and rubbed down with the finger or stump, 
or accented portions left untouched. Charcoal work needs to be 
set with fixativ (white shellac cut with alcohol) applied with an 
atomizer. 



ACADEMIC DRAWING 



301 



Tone work in charcoal can be used to good advantage both in 
pictorial and decorative work, by first covering the surface with 
the predominating tone, then wiping out the lighter masses, and 
putting in the darker ones. 

Good effects may be ob- 
tained by using gray and 
tinted 

the light with 
crayon ; also by 



papers, putting in 




white 
using 
charcoal and water color 
together in the same 
sketch on white paper. 

It is expected that stu- 
dents will be familiar with 
the following terms and 
principles of free-hand 
perspective and will be 
able to apply them. 

A perspective drawing 
is a representation of an 
object presenting the same 
appearance as the object 
itself. In a perspective 
drawing the object is con- 
ceived as seen through a transparent plane called the picture plane. 
Straight lines are imagined running from all points of the object 
to the eye. The points where these lines pierce the picture plane 
are points of the perspective. 




ice 



302 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

i Distance affects the apparent size of an object and parts of 
the same object; the farther an object or part of an object is from 
the eye, the smaller it will appear. 

2 Position affects the apparent form of an object. 

3 Surfaces seen obliquely are foreshortened, and do not appear 
in their true shape. 

4 A circle seen obliquely appears as an ellipse. 

5 Parallel lines retreating from the eye appear to converge to 
points called vanishing points. 

6 Lines parallel to the picture plane retain their direction in the 
perspective. Hence vertical lines remain vertical and horizontal 
lines parallel to the picture plane remain horizontal. 

7 Lines not parallel to the picture plane converge in the per- 
spective as they recede from the eye. The point toward which the 
perspective of any set of parallel lines converges is called the van- 
ishing point. 

8 The eye level is an imaginary horizontal line which represents 
the level from which the object is seen. 

9 The line of vision or line of direction is an imaginary line 
running from the eye to the axis of the object. 

io All horizontal lines, not parallel to the picture plane, vanish 
at the level of the eye. Hence those below the level of the eye 
slant upward in the perspective ; those above the level of the eye 
slant downward. 

ii Lines perpendicular to the picture plane vanish in the eye 
level at a point directly in front of the eye. This point is called 
the center of vision. 

12 All horizontals at an angle of 45 with the picture plane vanish 
in points at the right or left of the center of vision and as far from 
it as the eye is from the center of vision. 

13 Linear perspective deals with the relative size and shape of 
objects, foreshortening and convergence of lines and planes. 

14 Aerial perspective deals with the appearance of objects as 
affected by atmospheric conditions. Objects appear less distinct 
in form, light and shade, and color as they recede from the eye; 
'hey lose their color and appear gray in proportion to their distance. 

Give much time to practice and drill in free-hand drawing to 
:ure freedom and power of execution. 
The examination will require drawings of 
The following solids : sphere, hemisphere, ovoid, cylinder, cone, 
square prism, plinth, triangular prism, square pyramid, vase 



\« ADEM [C DRAWING 



303 



'^ 




2 Objects resembling a sphere and spheroids, as an apple, a 
peach, a turnip. 

3 Objects having a general cylindric form, as a box, a fruit 
jar, a tumbler, a stovepipe, a hat. 

4 Objects resembling the cone, as a carrot, a thimble, a beet. 

5 Objects resembling the pyramid, as a spire, an inkstand, a 
metronome. 

6 Objects having a general rectangular outline, as a box, a table, 
a door, a house. 

7 Leaves, flowers, trees and other plant forms. 1 

8 Familiar objects and groups of objects. [in outline, mass 

9 Simple landscapes. j an d color 

10 Illustrations of stories and poems. 

To emphasize the value of attention to technic, copying from 
the flat may also be required. 

2 Decorative drawing. Free-hand and instrumental. This sub- 
ject is not confined to ornamentation alone, but should enter into 
nearly all other work not only in drawing but in written work and 
manual training. The principles of arrangement, composition, 
design, and color should be observed in the notebooks of the science 
work as well as in the drawing class. 



304 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



Design does not mean merely the making of ornament to be 
applied to a surface or form. This is ornamentation. Design 
accompanies construction from foundation to finish, producing by 
perfect proportion, pleasing lines, and adaptation to purpose, a 
building or a piece of furniture or any object which is a thing of 
beauty in itself, without the need of applied ornament. Structural 
design is as much a part of decorative drawing as applied design, 
and should receive much attention. Design and construction should 
go hand in hand. 

Constructive design. This means the designing of actual ob- 
jects which may be constructed. In this work the design depends 
on the shape, proportion, and use to which the object is to be put. 
The student should be able to make designs for common and use- 
ful objects and to make them of suitable material; such as boxes, 
book covers, lamp shades, sofa pillows and other objects, to be 
made of cardboard and cloth ; book racks, wall brackets, wall cabi- 
nets, jardiniere stands, etc., to be made of wood ; baskets to be 
made of raffia and reed; mats to be woven of yarn and other 
material. 

Mechanical aids such as rule, compasses, tracing and transfer- 
ring may be employed in decorative drawing. Tracing paper may 

be used to repeat the unit by 
tracing with a soft pencil. A 
design may be finished in out- 
line, tone, or color. If colors 
are used, care should be exor- 
cised in making harmonious com- 
binations. 
^ ^ ~^" ^ i Fitness to purpose is the un- 

&Bem%!&^ Bdm derlying principle of decoration. 

^aJS JUP^fy Sao 2 That which is used as deco- 

te^ jjjgff^y ^jrim ration should not be of more 

k ^r ^ k. ^ importance than the object deco- 

ta^fe ^PJaawtef^ rated and should not detract 

WjB ^LSjSJPmF from the usefulness of that ob- 

j^^/Im^ mm design 1S called a unit or motif 

sm^m fat ra m m Q ^ ^^ design. 

4 Geometric figures, abstract forms or spot units may be used 
as motifs or sources of design; also conventional treatments of 
natural and historic forms. 






ACADEMIC DRAWING 



305 



5 Keeping the general characteristics of a natural form, omit- 
ting details and accidents of growth as the method of applying the 
design may require, is called conventionalization. 

6 A unit of design may be repeated 

a About a center, forming a rosette or radial arrangement. In 
a rosette the units should spring from the center and should be 
united at the center by a strong central figure, or from the margin 
as in a wreath. 

f *¥▲¥▲¥ 

•» v ♦ ♦ # ♦ ♦ 

SPOT UNITS 

b In a line forming a border. In a border marginal lines should 
be used to give stability to the arrangement. 
c To cover a surface. 

7 In a surface pattern or a border the unit repeated may be 
bilateral in shape or it may be a rosette or other figure. 

8 A bilateral unit is one having an axis of symmetry, that is 
one which may be divided into two parts that balance. 

9 A balanced figure is one in which the opposite parts are equal 
but not symmetric. 

In an original design requiring the use of plant forms, care 
should be taken to observe the laws of growth. In historic orna- 
ment the work will be confined to simple examples of the different 
styles. The units in historic ornament are either geometric figures 
or conventionalized natural forms. 



306 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Satisfactory work in this department involves a careful study 
of conventionalization and of the elementary principles of composi- 
tion and arrangement for decorative purposes, symmetry, repetition, 
and alternation. Students should also understand the principles of 
contrast, unity, strength, proportion, variety, rhythm, balance, har- 
mony, and repose. They should be able to make, from given units, 
simple geometric and floral designs for rosettes, borders, and sur- 
face patterns, applied to book covers, wall paper and useful objects. 
Simple designs in monograms, initial letters, head and tail pieces, 
tiles etc., will also be required. 

In making a design decide first what the design is for, how 
it is to be executed and of what material it is to be made. Lay 
out the form taking care that the proportions are good. If orna- 
ment is to be applied, decide on the motif, whether it be plant 
forms, historic ornament, or abstract forms. Arrange the orna- 
ment so that it will be related to the shape of the object or space 
to be filled, and divide the space into pleasing proportions. Strive 
for simplicity. Remember that beauty results from a few well 
arranged forms rather than from a multiplicity of complicated 
detail. 

Color. The study of color should be continued in the high 
school during at least the first two years. Students should be 
familiar with the terms used, as spectrum, standard, positive, pri- 
mary, secondary, tertiary, tint, shade, tone, hue, scale, pure, broken, 
gray, neutral, warm, cold, advancing, receding, complementary, 
color value, color harmony, contrast, rhythm, transparent, opaque, 
pigment etc. 

They should know the names of the pigments most commonly 
used and should be able to paint flowers, fruit, still life and simple 
landscapes. Also to do harmonious coloring in design work. 

3 Constructive drawing. This includes the kinds of drawing 
known as geometric constructions, projections, surface develop- 
ments, working drawings, architectural and mechanical drawing. 
The work is usually done with instruments, but practice should 
be given in free-hand sketching. These subjects need not be taken 
up separately but the teacher should plan the exercises so as to 
include these operations. In this work accuracy is of special 
importance. Much practice in the use of instruments is necessary 
in order to secure good results. 

Instruments. The pencil for this work should be hard, and 
sharpened to a chisel edge instead of a point. It should 
be kept sharp by frequent rubbing on a coarse whetstone or piece 



ACADEMIC DRAWING 307 

of tine emer) paper. The construction should be made with this 
pencil under light pressure, producing very fine but sharp lines 
and well defined intersections. Alter the construction is com- 
pleted in this way, the drawing should be finished by retracing, 
with a softer pencil, or better still with ruling pen and india ink, 
such of the lines as need to be more distinct. 

The compasses (dividers) should have fine, hard points, one of 
which should be detachable for the purpose of substituting a 
pencil point or pen. The joint should be so tight as not to per- 
mit free, easy motion, otherwise the distance between the points 
is likely to vary when in use. The best compasses in this respect 
are those in which the opening is controlled by a spring and 
thumb screw. 

In laying off distances, the length desired should be taken from 
the scale by means of compasses, then applied to the line. 

A drawing board is absolutely essential to good results. It 
should be of soft wood, so that paper can be attached by thumb 
tacks, should be smoothly dressed on one side and its left-hand 
edge should be dressed to a straight line. 

A T square is also necessary. It is used as shown in figure 14, 
the head being pressed against the left-hand edge of the board. 
By sliding the T square along the board, means are furnished 




Fig. 14 



for drawing accurately any number of horizontal lines. The 
two right triangles or set squares also shown in figure 14 are im- 
portant. In one the acute angles are each 45 °, and in the other 
they are 60 ° and 30°. By resting them on the T square we are 
enabled to draw any number of lines perpendicular to those 
drawn by aid of the T square alone; also lines of 30 , 45 ° and 
6o° with those of either system mentioned. They also enable 
us to draw a parallel or a perpendicular to any line on the board 
and through any point. 



308 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

The complete outfit shown in figure 14, consisting of a drawing 
board, T square and two set squares, costs from 35 to 75 cents, 
according to size. 

Geometric constructions. Candidates should be prepared to make 
the following geometric constructions. 

1 To draw a line perpendicular to a given line (a) from a point 
on the line, (b) from a point outside the line, (c) at the middle 
point of the line, (d) at the extremity of the line. 

Application to construction of squares and rectangles when the 
sides are given and to bisection of a given line. 

2 To draw a parallel to a given line (a) through a given point, 
(b) at a given distance from the given line. 

3 To bisect a given arc or a given angle. 

4 To construct an angle equal to a given angle. 

5 To construct triangles whose sides are given; (a) equilateral, 
(b) isosceles, (c) scalene. 

6 To divide a line into any number of equal parts. 

7 To construct angles of 30 , 45 °, 6o°, 90 , or any number of 
degrees. 

8 To draw a circumference through any three points. 
Application to finding center of a given circumference and to 

circumscribing a circle about a triangle. 

9 To inscribe a circle within a triangle. 

10 To draw a trefoil, a quatrefoil and a cinquefoil. 

11 To draw a regular pentagon, hexagon and octagon. 

12 To draw a curve having a given radius tangential to two 
given lines forming a right angle [pi. 2, fig. 20]. 

Projection (orthographic). It is not necessary for pupils to 
study orthographic projection before making working drawings, 
but high school pupils, after having made working drawings in 
the grades, should understand the elementary principles of this 
subject. Teachers should explain the planes and angles of pro- 
jection, and how projections are obtained. Drawings may be made 
in either the first or third angle, preferably the third, that is, 
place the top view above the front view, the left side to the left 
and the right side to the right of the front view [fig. 15]. Draw 
as many views as will be necessary to show all the facts of the 
object, and no more. Plan, front and side elevations mean the 
same as top, front and side views. The connecting lines may be 
drawn in very fine full lines or in dotted lines. All drawings should 
first be worked in pencil, and in fine full lines. If inked they may 
be in dotted black lines or fine full red or green lines [see fig. 15 
and 16]. 



Plate i 









d 




} 




V 


/c 






a 








a 


1 


f 


\ 


\ 


rJ 


(s 


9 \ 



Fig. IS 




Fig. 16 




Fig. 17 



Conventional Lines 



Visible edges 
invisible edges 
Shadow lines 
Center lines 
Working ond 
Projecting lines 
Dimension lines 



Cross -sec//o/-7 lines v// 



or 




ACADEMIC DRAWING 309 

Development of surfaces of geometric solids except sphere and 
spheroids, and of common objects, and longitudinal and transverse 
sections of simple objects will also be required. Shadow lines 
arc not necessary but are sometimes used in a working drawing. 
Light, if considered, is usually assumed to come from above and 
the left, and in this case those edges separating the light and dark 
faces are made heavier. In common practice the right hand and 
lower lines are made heavier, except when the forms are spheric 
or cylindric [fig. 18]. 

Working drawings. A working drawing is a drawing from which 
the object represented may be made. The dimensions should be 
indicated on the drawing by figures. Feet and inches may be rep- 
resented by marks of accent, thus : 4/ 2" reads four feet, two inches. 

Make the dividing line of the fraction horizontal as not 

oblique as //' ■„ ^ 

: f 

Dimensioning. This is the most vital part of a working draw- 
ing. The drawing might be drawn free-hand and out of proportion 
but the dimensions given must be accurate. Dimensions may be 
placed either outside or inside the drawing, whichever will be the 
most clearly read. When outside, place them about -J inch or more 
away. When inside, put them in a clear space where they will 
not interfere with the drawing. They should be placed so as to 
read from left to right, and from the bottom upward. The arrow- 
heads should be acute angles, the vertex of the angles being at 
or opposite the points between which measurements are made 
[fig. 17]. If opposite, extension lines should be drawn from the 
points to be measured to the arrowheads [fig. 17]. If there is 
not room enough for the arrowheads between the lines place them 
outside. If there is not room enough between the lines for plain 
figures put them outside [fig. 17]. 

The distance from any point to round holes and cylindric objects 
should be measured to the center, not to the edge [fig. 18]. 

Show " over-all " dimensions on a separate line from those giving 
the shorter dimensions [fig. 17]. 

Indicate the radius of a curve as shown in figure 19. It is well 
to place a small circle around the center point so it may be readily 
found. 

Indicate the number of degrees in an angle as shown in figure 21. 

In drawing round or cylindric objects draw the view that shows 
the circle first, and draw the other view by projecting lines tangent 
to the circle. 



3io 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



Cross-sections may be made as shown in figures 22, 23, 24. 

Conventional lines used in working drawings. Visible edges 
and outlines are represented by full lines, which may vary some 
according to the drawing. A large open drawing requires a heavier 
line than a small intricate one. Invisible edges and outlines are 
shown by a dash line, lighter than the full line. Center lines are 
made with a dot and dash. Section lines should be finer than the 
full lines. Two pieces of material coming together should be sec- 
tioned in opposite directions [fig. 22]. Dimension and extension 
lines are fine full lines with a space left for the figures [fig. 17]. 
Connecting lines may be fine full or dotted lines. In a working 
drawing the connecting lines are usually omitted [fig. 18]. 

Scale draiving. When a drawing is not made full size it is said 
to be drawn to scale. A drawing made to a scale of 3" = i', 
r-§" = 1-', f" = i', can easily be drawn with an ordinary ruler 
marked off in feet and inches. (1) In a scale of 3" = V , \ inch 
equals 1 inch; (2) in a scale of 1'$" = i', \ inch equals 1 inch; 



(3) in a scale of |' 



inch equals 1 inch ; other scales, 



such as 1" equals 1', or \" equals i', must either be bought or 
made. Pupils should be taught to make a scale and to use one. 
Figure 25 is a scale of \" = i'. 





T 






5'-7 




*■ 


6 






16 3 



















2 3 

scale £"=r 


z 


I 5 < 





Fig. 25 

g 
The space to the right of ° are feet and those to the left are 

inches. In laying off distances with this scale start at the ° point 
counting to the right for feet and to the left for inches, as shown 
in figure 25. The distance from a to b is 5' 7". If the same dis- 
tance is taken off with the compasses, put one leg of the compasses 
on the mark at 5 feet and open the compasses till it reaches to 
7 inches. In making a scale use a piece of stiff paper or thin wood. 

Students should have much practice and drill in sketching objects 
from sight, dictation and memory, and in making free-hand work- 
ing drawings of common objects. They will be required to make 
working drawings from free-hand sketches, dictation, and from 
measurement. 

Examples. From free-hand sketch. Make a working drawing 
of the object represented by a sketch. (Teacher make sketch.) 



Plate 2 





■/'— => 



Fig. IS Scale one half full size 








Fig. 21 



Fig. 20 



Fig. 19 



1 

1 






'W/M& 






^ 


^^ 


I 

Stile 1 
X. 


Panel 








I 


Roil 




Fig. 22 



Section on line /I 
Fig. 23 





Fig. 2 4 



ACADEMIC DRAWING 31 1 

From dictation. Make a working drawing of a square plinth 
resting on the top of a hollow cylinder. Show the dimensions. Or, 
make a working drawing of a block of stone 4. feet, 6 inches long, 
2 feet. 4 inches wide, and t foot thick. Scale 1" equals i'. 

From measurement. Let the student make a working drawing 
of some object, as a box, slate, desk top, door, wheel, or model 
made in the shop. To make a drawing from measurement the 
student should first make a free-hand sketch of the object, judg- 
ing the proportions by eye. Measure the object and place the 
measurement on the sketch, and work from the sketch. In drawing 
to scale be sure to put on the full dimensions. 

Lettering. Lettering forms an important part of the work in 
drawing, and should receive much attention. Designs for book 
covers, cards, billheads etc., are often made by the use of letters 
alone. In mechanical and architectural drawing much importance 
is attached to good lettering; a good drawing is often spoiled in 
appearance by bad lettering. Students should practice lettering 
in their notebooks as well as on their drawing sheets. 

While good lettering depends largely on well formed letters, the 
spacing and arrangement of the letters and words are of great 
importance. Lettering is an exercise in design. Letters and words 
should be considered as spots. All letters are to be considered of 
equal importance ; one should not attract more attention than an- 
other on account of its making a darker spot or leaving a lighter 
space. Each letter should be unmistakable and each word separated 
from another. 

Students should start with a simple letter, and learn one alpha- 
bet thoroughly. They will then have no difficulty with others. 
Take a plain Gothic letter as shown on plate 3. Begin with the 
capitals ; these are uniform in hight but not in width. Draw two 
light horizontal lines, the distance apart being equal to the hight 
of the letters. Study carefully the form and proportions of each 
letter. It will be observed that the letters B, E, H, S, X and Z, 
are larger at the bottom than at the top. (To test this look at 
them bottom side up.) Draw a third line slightly above halfway 
(this will vary with the different styles). Letters vary in width, 
but beginners may make them (if they are obliged to measure each 
letter) equal in width except they should make the M and W wider, 
and I, J, L and T narrower. By study it will be noticed that the 
spaces are not all equal. If the letters and spaces were made uni- 
formly equal the result would be that one part of a word would 
look darker than another, as in a and b. c and d look better. Do 



312 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

not take printed matter as standard, for letters printed from type 
are not always well spaced. 

Begin by drawing each letter carefully. Make large letters with 
charcoal, chalk, or blunt pencil. Sketch in a light skeleton outline, 
free-hand, and strengthen to the desired thickness; if very large 
draw in double line and fill in. Be sure to make the lines very light 
so that changes may easily be made. Make small letters the same 
way but use a sharper point. Small letters are inked in with a pen ; 
large ones with a brush. When letters having a long vertical line, 
as I, H and B, come together the space should be greater than in 
such letters as C, O and S ; and when letters like A, L, P and V 
come together the space should be very small. Notice the spacing 
in words "lettering" and "hillside" [see pi. 3]. As a rule leave 
a space equal to the width of a letter H between the words. 

To make small or minuscule letters, draw two light lines the same 
distance apart as for capitals. Divide the space into three equal 
parts (this may vary), and draw a line through the upper point. 
In the two thirds space make the body of the letter, the " loop " in 
the upper part. Draw another line below these at a distance equal 
to the upper space for letters that go below the line [see e, pi. 3]. 

It is easier to make slanting letters look well than vertical ones. 
In order to get them of an equal slant draftsmen sometimes make 
a series of parallel oblique lines with the T square and triangle at 
an angle of 60 or 70 to be used as guides as shown at f. 

Roman letters and those that have thick strokes, hair lines, 
ceriphes and spurs are more difficult and should be avoided by be- 
ginners [see g]. 

To avoid the common error of making the wrong stroke heavy 
remember this simple rule. If the letters are made without taking 
the pencil from the paper, the down stroke will be the heavy one 
as shown at h. 

The S is heavy in the middle not at the ends. 

The capital I has no dot. 

Make periods the same width as the heavy part of the letter. 

Keep the same slant in all letters. 

In mechanical drawing avoid fancy lettering. 

When a given space is to be filled with lettering it will be found 
best to design the letters on another piece of paper and when just 
right transfer by tracing. 

Where lettering requires centering, it is often best to draw an 
axial line and work from the center each way [ see i] . 



Plate 3 



ABCDEFGHIJKLM 
NOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

HtolKl<)hijkltriiio|)(|[ , .slimwxg 

LETTERING HILLSIDE 
LETTERING HILLSIDE 

A-* | > | )l i mliim MlaU/f/f:4L 

'i:S« 'AMNV 
i'-tt N/VXYZ 

GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS, 

f 4. .Seiiiim nn line A -li'r-fi 
JlRCHnkCTUR/iL DEVEIQPNENTS 

^S^ia HobEfcll UTTEDItld 




A GOOD LETTER 



ADVANCED DRAWING 



313 



ADVANCED DRAWING 



The examination in advanced drawing will include 

1 Pictorial drawing. Free-hand. A more extended application 
of the principles of perspective, and free-hand drawings of familiar 
objects and landscapes, figure drawing, light and shade, grouping, 
composition and color. 

To give power in landscape drawing, students should be encour- 
aged to make sketches of picturesque bits in their home sketch- 
book. It is quite a problem to select from a mass of detail, the 
essential points which make the picture. The tendency to crowd 
in many details should be avoided. 

In a drawing showing full values there is background, middle 
distance and foreground. Then technic in such pictures should 
always bring out clearly what is in the foreground with corre- 
sponding diminution of values to the background, which is the least 
distinct. 

In figure drawing look first for the effect as a whole, for action, 
character and proportion. Compare different parts- of the figure 
to give relative size and shape. 

Grouping is the art of arranging objects in a pleasing manner. 
A row or a mere collection of objects is not a group in pictorial 
composition. The objects represented should be arranged with 




314 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

reference to one principal object, to which the others are accessory, 
and they should be placed so that the eye may take in the whole 
group at once. 

Objects which are dissimilar in form and tone and are harmonious 
in color group well. Remember that variety is more pleasing than 
sameness. 

As two solids can not occupy the same space at the same time, 
care should be taken in the drawing of a group of objects standing 
at the same level, that the bases, if wholly represented, do not 
interfere. 

2 Decorative drawing. Free-hand and instrumental. A more 
extended study of the principles of decoration and a higher degree 
of excellence in the work in design, including conventional plant 
forms, historic ornament, color and constructive design will be 
required. The examination will presuppose ability to make original 
designs in line, tone and color, showing good space relations, and 
a free conventionalization of plant form. A more comprehensive 
study of historic ornament is required than in the elementary 
syllabus. The work during these years should assume a practical 
nature. The designs should' be for some purpose and should be 
worked out in the material best suited for the purpose. For stencil- 
ing on cloth use artist's oil colors and a brush having short bristles. 
Trays, dishes and other useful and ornamental forms may be made 
of sheet copper hammered into shape. Vase forms may be designed 
and made of clay, and if a pottery or large kiln is situated near by 
they can be fired and preserved. 

In schools where manual training is taught, objects to be made 
of wood should be designed and constructed, as wall brackets, wall 
cabinets, taborets, book racks, and furniture. Book covers may be 
made with appropriate ornamentation. Head and tail pieces may 
be executed in pen and ink [use drawing ink] and reproduced at 
a printing office. Work for reproduction should be made once and 
a half or double the size it is to be when finished. It is not expected 
that pupils will do all of the above work, but make a choice of one 
branch and learn to do that well. 

3 Constructive work. Review the geometric problems found 
under " Drawing," and add the following : 

1 Draw a curve having a given radius tangent to two given lines 
forming (a) an acute angle, (b) an obtuse angle. 

A tangent must always be perpendicular to the radius, at the 
point of tangency. 

2 Draw a curve having a given radius tangent to a given line 
and a given circle [pi. 4, fig. 29]. 



Plate 4 




ADVANCED DRAWING 315 

3 Draw a curve having a given radius tangent to two given 
centers [fig. 28J. 

Circles are tangent to each other on a line connecting their 
centers [fig. 28] . 

4 Draw a reversed curve [fig. 29]. 

Students should be able to work out the following: projections 
of geometric solids in oblique positions, construction of ellipses, 
transverse and longitudinal sections of geometric solids and com- 
mon objects, development of surfaces of prisms, pyramids, cylin- 
ders, cones, frustums, and of common objects based on these forms, 
also of oblique sections of cylinders and prisms ; working drawings 
of common objects from sketches, dictation, and measurement. 
When drawing from measurement a free-hand working drawing 
should first be made, judging the proportions by the eye. Measure 
the object and place the dimensions on the sketch; then work from 
the sketch. If manual training is taught the students should make 
working drawings of the objects they make, first by free-hand, then 
with instruments. 

Students should be able to make plans and elevations of a small 
dwelling, a schoolhouse, shop, or other building. 

In schools where two lines of work can be carried out, the work 
in advanced drawing may be divided into two courses ; i. e. art 
course and mechanical course. Students taking the art course will 
take architectural drawing, design and the study of art, historical 
and modern. This should be a continuation of the work done in the 
grades. 

Students should be familiar with the names of artists and their 
principal works, of the different schools, beginning with the old 
masters and ending with the modern artists. Not only easel pictures 
but sculpture and mural decoration should receive their just share 
of attention. ' 

Illustrations of such work by old masters together with modern 
work may be given by stereopticon lectures, arousing and sustaining 
the interest of students to a point where they can pursue the study 
independently. Art exhibitions, museums, photographs and books 
offer opportunities for becoming familiar with examples of fine art 
not sufficiently known and appreciated. 

Architectural dr diving. The first thing to do in designing a build- 
ing is to decide what the building is for, the size, location and sur- 
roundings of the lot on which it is to be erected ; the limit of cost; the 
material of which it is to be built; the size and number of rooms. 
Think it out and get a mental picture of it, and make free-hand 
sketches of the plans and elevations to get location of rooms, doors, 



316 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

windows, stairs, chimney etc. Decide on the size and shape and 
while having the whole house in mind begin with the plan of the first 
floor. Building plans are usually made to a scale of y equals i'; 
preliminary sketches are often made to that of ■§" equals i'. Locate 
the rooms, stairs, chimney, doors and windows. Be sure to leave 
room enough for the stairs. In figuring the stairs for an ordinary 
dwelling allow from 7 to 8 inches for the risers, and from 10 to 12 
inches for the treads. The lower the riser the wider the tread. The 
sum of the two should be about 18 inches. Plan to have the parti- 
tions in the second floor over those in the first floor when possible. 
The bathroom on the second floor should be over or nearly over the 
plumbing of the first floor, not on the opposite side of the house. 
Each fireplace should have a separate flue in the chimney. While 
drawing the floor plans keep in mind the elevations. Keep all work in 
light lines for many changes will need to be made. Before starting 
the elevations draw a section of the framework showing the dis- 
tances between the floors, width of timber, finish, hight of windows 
etc. Draw the end elevation and project from this to the side 
elevation. When it is entirely finished in pencil, and all corrections 
and changes made, it may be inked in, or a tracing made in ink 
on tracing cloth from which blue prints may be made. 

Problems. Pupils may draw the second floor and cellar plans 
and side elevations of the house on plate 5. 

Design a mantle for the fireplace. 

Design a sideboard for the dining room. 

Design a color scheme with decorations for the dining room, and 
living room. 

Design a mat to be woven or hooked from rags for the sitting 
room. 

Design a house similar to this one. 

Mechanical drawing. Students taking the mechanical course will 
take free-hand object drawing by pictorial representation, and by 
working drawings, and instrumental drawing of geometric construc- 
tions, orthographic projection, surface developments and working 
drawings of machine details as, bolts, nuts, levers, cranks, cams, 
pulleys etc. For this purpose boys can obtain pieces of machinery 
at the machine shops, foundries and hardware stores or take parts 
of farming machinery. 

Students should be able to make working drawings to scale from 
a pictorial sketch, showing cross-sections. 

The examination questions will be arranged in groups to meet the 
different courses. 



Plate 5 




F^o kT ETleVai'io.m 

S<;aLC-||' = i-0'' 



ADVANCED DRAWING 2 l 7 

Books on drawing 

Each academic school library should contain one set of each of 
current textbooks on drawing, including manuals, and as many as 
possible of such reference books on art as the following. 

Adams, C. L. Mechanical Drawing. Boston. George H. Ellis Co. $2.25. 

For advanced drawing. 

Bailey, H. T. School Sanitation and Decoration. Heath $1.50. 

Batchelder, Ernest A. The Principles of Design. Chicago. Inland 
Printer $3. 

Bell, Mrs N. R. E. (Meugens). Elementary History of Art; Archi- 
tecture, Sculpture, Painting, by N. D. Anvers. 1889. Scribner $3.75. 

Brown, Frank C. Letters and Lettering. Boston. Bates, Guild Co. $2. 

Clark, Ernest E. A Handbook of Plant Forms. New York. John 
Lane Co. $2.50. 

Crane, Walter. Line and Form. Bell & Sons $2.25. 

Cross, Anson K. Mechanical Drawing. Ginn $1.25. 

Day, L. F. Nature in Ornament. Scribner $4.50. 

Dow, Arthur W. Composition. J. M. Bowles $1.50. 

Edminster, C. F. Architectural Drawing. New York. David Wil- 
liams Co. $2. 

Emery, M. S. How to Enjoy Pictures; with a special chapter on pic- 
tures in the schoolroom, by S. Skinner. Prang $1.50. 

Goodyear, W. H. History of Art. Ed. 7. Barnes $3. 

Hamerton, P. G. The Graphic Arts. Little $2. 

Thoughts about Art. Roberts $2. 

Hamlin, A. D. F. History of Architecture. Longmans $2. 

Hoyt, D. L. World's Painters and their Pictures. Ginn $1.40. 

Hurll, Estelle M. Riverside Art Series. Houghton 75c and 40c a v. 

Jackson, F. G. Decorative Design. Lippincott $2. 

Theory and Practice of Design. Lippincott $2.50. 

Jepson, George. Cam Construction. Boston. L. Van Nostrand $1.50. 

For advanced drawing. 

Lilley & Midgely. Book of Studies in Plant Form. Scribner $1.50. 

Marquand & Frothingham. History of Sculpture. Longmans $1.50. 

Martin, Clarence A. Building Construction. Boston. Bates, Guild 
Co. $2. 

Mayeux, Henri. Manual of Decorative Composition. Appleton $1.50. 

Meyer, F. S. Handbook of Ornament. Hessling $3.60. 

Miller, L. W. Essentials of Perspective. Scribner $1.50. 

Morris, William. Art's and Craft's Essays. Scribner $2.50. 

Parkhurst, Daniel B. Sketching from Nature. Orange N. J. Author 
50c. 

Perry, Walter S. Egypt and the Land of the Temples. Prang $1.50. 

Poore, H. R. Pictorial Composition. New York. Baker & Taylor $1.50. 

Redgrave, Richard. Manual of Design. Scribner $1. 

Ruskin, John. Modern Painters. 2v. Maynard, Merrill & Co. $3. 

Tadd, J. Liberty. New Methods of Education; Art; Manual Training; 
Nature Study. Judd $3. 



318 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

Tarbell, F. B. History of Greek Art. Macmillan 6s. 
Van Dyke, J. C. Art for Art's Sake. Scribner $1.50. 

History of Painting. Longmans $1.50. > 

How to Judge a Picture. New York. Eaton & Mains 60c. 

Vanderpoel, Emily Noyes. Color Problems. Longmans $5. 

Ward, J. Historic Ornament. 2v. Scribner $6. 

Weir, Irene. Pose Drawing. Giun 50c. 

Wornum, R. N. Analysis of Ornament. Chapman 8s. 

Periodicals 

The Schcol Arts Book. Worcester Mass. $1 a year. (Monthly) 
The Studio. New York. $5. (Monthly) 
The Craftsman. Syracuse. $3. (Monthly) 
Masters in Art. Boston. $1.50. (Monthly) 

Manual Training Magazine. Peoria 111. Manual Arts Press $1 a year. 
(Quarterly) 

Helps 

Audubon Bird Charts. Parts I and II. Prang $1.30 a pt. 

Bell's Supplementary Drawing Helps. Syracuse. Bardeen 10c a pt. 

Historic Ornament Plates. Colored. Prang $10.95. 

Pencil Sketches of Native Trees. Woodbury. Milton Bradley Co. 60c 
a set. 

Nature Drawings. Worcester Mass. Davis Press 60c. 

Pictures, blue prints and other helps. Teachers should keep informed 
on all matters pertaining to the work. 



INDEX 



The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 273 s 
means page 273, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one 
third of the way down. 



Academic diploma, requirements, 

i3 9 -i5 2 . 

Academic students, term defined, S 6 . 

Agriculture, 15 1 1 ^? 9 ; counts, n 9 . 

Algebra, counts, .11 7 ; elementary, 
49 7 — 52 s ; intermediate, 52 7 -53 fl ; ad- 
vanced, 55 6 -57 7 . 

American history, 2 2 6 5 -47 5 ; counts, 
n 9 ; time allotments, i6o B . 

Ancient history, i62 8 -82 7 ; counts, 
11 9 ; time allotments, 160 7 . 

Apportionment based on examina- 
tions, 6 4 ; for attendance, 6 5 . 

Arithmetic, advanced, 48 7 -4g 6 jcounts, 
11 7 . 

Biologic science, ios^i 2 ; counts, 

11 8 . 
Bookkeeping, counts, 12 1 ; elementary, 

2 73 3- 75 6 ; advanced, 2 75 7 -77 3 . 
Botany, counts, n 8 ; elementary, 

io9 1 -i3 8 ; advanced, i23 8 -28 B . 
Business subjects, 272 1 -q4 2 ; counts, 

12 1 . 

Caesar's Gallic war, 33 4 ~34 1 . 

Chemistry, 82 1 -io4 4 ; counts, n 8 ; 
topical syllabus in, 82^9 1 3 ; labor- 
atory syllabus in, 9i 4 -io4 4 . 

Cicero's Orations, 34 2 . 

Civil government, 248 3 -67 8 ; counts, 
ii 3 . 

Classical academic diploma, require- 
ments, 15 2 . 

Classical students, use of term, S 5 . 

Commerce, history of, 28i B -86 7 ; 
counts, 12 2 . 

Commercial geography, 2 86 8 ^9i 6 ; 
counts, 12 1 . 

Commercial law, 279°— 8 i B ; counts, 



Composition, see English composi- 
tion. 

Counts, distribution, n 1 -i2 3 ; change 
in system, 14 4 ; 

Credentials, requirements, i3 9 -i5 3 ; 
differentiated, 14 8 ; business, 2 72 3 - 
73 3 - 

Diploma, see Academic diploma. 

Drawing, 29S 1 ~3i8 5 ; counts, 12 3 ; 
advanced, 313 1 — 16 9 ; books on, 317 1 - 
18 5 . 

Economics, 2 68 1 -7i 9 ; counts, n 9 . 

Education, history and principles of, 
counts, 12 3 . 

English, i6 2 -3o 7 ; counts, n 1 ; abolish- 
ment of first and second year tests, 
13 8 ; examinations in first and 
second year issued on request, 13 8 ; 
first year, i9 1 -2o 7 ; second year, 20 7 — 
2 1 9 ; third year, 22^2 3 s ; fourth 
year, 23 4 -2 4 5 ; uniform college 
entrance requirements in, 24 s - 
26 2 ; list of books for supplemen- 
tary reading recommended by the 
National Educational Association, 

26 3 — 29 2 . 

English composition, 1 7 2 ; in first year 
English, 19 8 , 20 5 ; in second year 
English, 2 1 1 , 2 1 7 ; in third year 
English, 2 2 3 , 2 2 8 -23 3 ; in fourth 
year English, 2 3 7 , 24! 

English grammar, i7 9 -i8 6 , 29 s ; 
counts, ii 2 ; in first year English, 
19 9 , 20 7 ; in second year English, 
2 1 3 , 2 1 9 ; in third year English, 22 s , 
23 s ; in fourth year English, 24 1 , 24 s . 

English history, 2io 4 -2 6 4 ; counts, 
ii 9 ; time allotments, 160 8 . 

English language and literature, his- 
tory of, 29 7 ~3o 7 ; counts, ii 2 . 



320 



NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 



English literature, i6 5 -i7 2 , 2g 1 -T > o 1 ; 
in first year English, 19 2 , 20 2 ; in 
second year English, 20 8 , 2i B ; in 
third year English, 22 1 , 2 2 7 ; in 
fourth year English, 23*, 24 s . 

European history, 18 2 7 -2io 4 ; counts, 
1 1 9 ; -time allotments, 160 8 . 

Examinations, instituted, 5 7 ; Regents 
ordinance of 1864, 5 7 ; apportion- 
ment based on, 6 4 ; apportionment 
system abandoned, 6 5 ; purposes of 
establishing, 6 7 -7 8 ; growth, statis- 
ics.io 1 ; dates when first held, io 4 ; 
principles governing, i2 5 -i3 9 . 

French, 38 1 , 42 7 -45 7 ; counts, n 5 ; 
examinations covering first two 
years, 13 6 ; elementary require- 
ment, 42 7 -44 2 ; intermediate re- 
quirement, 44 2 ; advanced require- 
ment, 45 1 . 

Geometry, counts, n 7 ; plane, 54 1 ; 
solid, S4 3 . 

German, 38 1 ~42 6 ; counts, n 5 ; exam- 
inations covering first two years, 
13°; elementary requirement, 38 s - 
40 4 ; intermediate requirement, 40 5 - 
41 5 ; advanced requirement, 41 s - 
42 6 . 

Grammar, see English grammar. 

Greek, 3i 1 -32 3 , 3S 1 — 37 s ; counts, n 3 ; 
examinations covering first two 
years, 13 7 ; first year, 35 4 ~36 2 ; se- 
cond year, 36 s ; third year, 36 8 -37 3 . 

Historical sketch of syllabus, 3 3 -io 4 . 
History, i58 1 -2 47 6 ; counts, n 9 . 
Home science, counts, 12 3 . 
Homer's Iliad, $6 s -^ & . 
Hygiene, ii9 9 -23 7 ; counts, n 8 . 

Laboratory practice, see Chemistry; 
Physical geography; Physics. 

Language and literature, i6 2 -47 3 ; 
counts, 11 1 . 

Latin, 3i 1 ~34 9 ; counts, n 3 ;~ exami- 
nations covering first two years, 
13 7 ; first year, 32 4 -33 3 ; second 
year, 33 3 ~34 1 ; third year, 34 2 ; 
fourth year, 34 s . 

Literature, i6 2 -3o 7 . See also English 
literature. 



Literature fund, established, 5 1 , prin- 
ciples governing apportionment, 
5 2 ; law amending distribution, 6 3 . 

Mathematics, 48^5 7 7 ; counts, 11'. 
Medieval European history, 182 7 - 

210 4 . 
Modern European history, i82 7 -2io 4 . 
Murray, David, quoted, 6 7 -7 8 . 

Parsons, J. R. jr, 1891 syllabus 
edited by, 8 3 ; edition of 1895 pre- 
pared by, 8 6 -9 2 ; directs prepara- 
tion of 1 goo edition, 9 2 . 

Per cent required, 14 9 . 

Physical geography, i32 2 -5o 6 ; counts, 
11 8 ; laboratory exercises in, 147 1 — 
5o«. 

Physical science, 58 1 -io4 4 . 

Physics, 58 2 -8i 6 ; counts, n 8 ; topi- 
cal syllabus in, 58 2 -66 8 ; laboratory 
syllabus in, 66 6 -8i 6 . 

Physiology and hygiene, ii9 9 -2 3 7 ; 
counts, 11 8 . 

Preparatory pupils, use of term, S 8 . 

Psychology, counts, 12 3 . 

Punctuation, 18 5 . 

Regents examinations, see Examina- 
tions. 

Rhetoric, 17 2 ; in first year English, 
i9 6 ; 2o 5 ; in second year English, 
2 1 1 , 2 1 7 ; in third year English, 22 s , 
22 8 -23 3 ; in fourth year English, 23 7 , 
2 4 4 . 

Science, ioS^i 2 ; counts, n 8 . 

Secondary schools and students, 
number, 9 7 . 

Shopwork, counts, 12 3 . 

Social science, 248 2 -7i 9 ; counts, n 9 . 

Spanish, 38 1 , 45 8 -47 4 ; counts, n 6 ; 
examinations covering first two 
years, 13 6 ; elementary require- 
ment, 45 8 -46 7 ; intermediate re- 
quirement, 46 8 ~47 4 . 

Spelling, 18 5 . 

Stenography, 292 7 -93 5 ; counts, 12 2 . 

Syllabus, historical sketch, 3 3 -io 4 ; 
first suggestions of, 5 7 ; David 
Murray on, 6 7 -7 8 ; edition of 1888, 
7 8 -8 3 ; edition of 18 'pi, 8 3 ; edition 
of 18Q5, 8 6 -9 2 ; edition of 1900, 9 2 . 



INDEX TO SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



321 



Trigonometry, 54 8 -55 5 ; counts, n 7 . 
Typewriting, 203 5 -Q4 2 ; counts, 12 2 . 

United States history, see American 
history. 

Virgil's Aeneid, 34". 

Watkins, Albert B., edition of 1888 
prepared by, 7 8 -8 3 . 



Wheelock, Charles F., edition of igoo 
prepared by, q 2 . 

Xenophon's Anabasis, 36*. 

Zoology, counts, n°; elementary, 
ii3 8 -i9 8 ; advanced, i28 5 -3i 2 . 



;p 



New York State Education Department 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 

Publications 1899-date 

Gaps in the series indicate that the numbers omitted are replaced by later 
editions or are for other reasons out of print. 

High School Department reports 1898-1903. O. 75c a vol. cloth. 

High School Department bulletins 1898- 1903. 

A continuation of the Examination Department bulletins 1895-98. Con- 
tinued in 1904 as Secondary Education bulletins. 

X17 (High School 1) Director's Report 1898. I22p. Mar. 1899. 15c. 

X19 (High School 3) Associated Academic Principals. Proceedings 
of the 14th Annual Conference, Dec. 1898. 236P. 25c. 

X20 (High School 4) Academic Examination Papers 1899. 3o6p. 
Oct. 1899. 25c. Small size 12.5 x 20 cm, 25c ; boards, 50c. 

X21 (High School 5) Director's Report 1899. 7op. Feb. 1900. 10c. 

X22 (High School 6) Associated Academic Principals. Proceed- 
ings of the 15th Annual Conference, Dec. 1899. i88p. 20c. 

X23 (High School 7) State Science Teachers Association. Pro- 
ceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference, Dec. 1899. 302p. 35c. 

X24 (High School 8) Academic Syllabus. 226p. Ap. 1900. 25c; 
cloth, 50c. 

The University declines to recommend any special textbooks, but for the 
guidance of teachers and students it specifies the ground covered by the pre- 
liminary and academic subjects. This syllabus is the best- available outline 
of what should be accomplished in these subjects. 

See also X43 (Secondary Education 27). 

X25 (High School 9) Manual Training Syllabus. 6op. May 
1900. IOC. 

X26 (High School 10) Academic Examination Papers 1900. 3o6p. 
Aug. 1900. Price, see X20. 

X27 (High School 11) Director's Report 1900. 38p. Feb. 1901. 5c. 

X28 (High School 12) Associated Academic Principals. Proceed- 
ings of the 16th Annual Conference, Dec. 1900. 164P. 2$c. 

X29 (High School 13) State Science Teachers Association. Pro- 
ceedings of the Fifth Annual Conference, Dec. 1900. 25op. 35c. 

X30 (High School 14) Academic Examination Papers 1901. 322p. 
Aug. 1901. 25c; boards, 50c. 

X31 (High School 15) Director's Report 1901. 34p. Jan. 1902. 10c. 

X32 (Fligh School 16) Associated Academic Principals. Proceed- 
ings of the 17th Annual Conference, Dec. 1901. 196P. 25c. 

X33 (High School 17) State Science Teachers Association. Pro- 
ceedings of the Sixth Annual Conference, Dec. 190 £. 3i2p. 40c. 



New York State Education Department 



X34 (High School 18) Academic Examination Papers 1902. 3i6p. 
July 1902. 25c; boards, 50c. 

X35 (High School 19) Associated Academic Prncipals. Proceed- 
ings of the 18th Annual Conference, Dec. 1902. I36p. 20c. 

X36 (High School 20) Director's Report 1902. 38p. July 1905'. 10c 

X37 (High School 21) State Science Teachers Association. Pro- 
ceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference, Dec. 1902. I28p 
20c. 

X38 (High School 22) Academic Examination Papers 1903. 3o8p 
July 1903. 25c. 

X39 (High School 23) Director's Report 1903. 52p. 1904. 15c 

< 

X40 (High School 24) Associated Academic Principals. Proceed- 
ings of the 19th Annual Conference, Dec. 1905. i72p. 25c 

X41 (High School 25) State Science Teachers Association. Pro- 
ceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference, Dec. 1903. 222p. 30c 

X42 (High School 26) Academic Examination Papers 1904. 324P 

1904. 25c. 

Secondary Education bulletins 1904-date. To advance sub- 
scribers 50c a year. 

X43 (Secondary Education 27) Academic Syllabus 1905. 324P. 
Nov. 1905. 25c. 

X44 (Secondary Education 28) State Science Teachers Associa- 
tion. Proceedings of Ninth Annual Conference, Dec. 1904. 

228p. 

X45 (Secondary Education 29) Associated Academic Principals. 
Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference, Dec. 1904. In 
press. 

X46 (Secondary Education 30) Academic Examination Papers 

1905. 32op. Aug. 1905. 25c. 

Question papers. For the academic year 1892 (v. 1) ; 1893 (v. 2) ; 
1894 (v. 3); 1895 (v. 4). D. 25c; boards, 50c. 

For 1896-1905' issued as Xio, X14, X16, X20, X26, X30, X34, X38, X42, 
X46. Till 1898 each volume contained all the Regents question papers 
of that year in any of the academic, professional law, medical, dental, 
veterinary, library and extension examinations. After the first edition of 
the 1898 examination papers the academic and professional papers were 
separated. 



